The impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon: a bibliometric analysis
Amanda Kesley Cardozo Cancio A , Mayerly Alexandra Guerrero-Moreno
B C * , Everton Cruz da Silva D E F , Fernando Abreu Oliveira C , Karina Dias-Silva D G , James Ferreira Moura Jr H I , Thiago Almeida Vieira A B , Lenize Batista Calvão D E , Leandro Juen D E and José Max Barbosa Oliveira-Junior A B C D
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Abstract
The use of fire, essential in human evolution, has facilitated low-cost land management in the Amazon, albeit with significant environmental losses. Its uncontrolled use, exacerbated by climate change, intensifies environmental and socioeconomic challenges. This study explores the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon via bibliometric analysis, revealing trends, gaps and key areas of scientific relevance based on 192 articles indexed in Scopus and Web of Science. Brazil has the highest scientific production (58%) and is a leader in scientific collaboration networks in this area. Topics such as ‘deforestation’ and ‘fire’ were central themes. Approximately 67% of studies focused on wildfires. The geographical distribution indicates that most studies (57%) are conducted on a regional scale, encompassing the entire Legal Amazon, and 15% focus on the state of Pará. The most common impacts associated with fire use in the Brazilian Amazon are ecological (35%). This study highlights the importance and complexity of the effects of fire use on the Amazon, underscoring the urgent need for policies that integrate sustainable management practices and fire governance. Promoting interdisciplinary research and collaboration among various societal sectors is essential to developing practical solutions protecting Amazonian biodiversity and communities.
Keywords: air pollution, Amazon, bibliometric analysis, Brazil, burning, climate change, fire, Pará, public policies, respiratory diseases, wildfires.
Introduction
The Brazilian Amazon, globally recognized for its unparalleled biodiversity (Correa et al. 2024), faces environmental challenges exacerbated by human interventions and climate change (Silva et al. 2021; da Silva et al. 2024a). These factors include forest degradation (Lapola et al. 2023), deforestation(Birben 2020), agricultural expansion (Juen et al. 2016), mining activities (Tollefson 2021) and periods of extreme drought (Aparecido et al. 2024), and their individual or combined effects pose a significant threat to the integrity of this vital ecosystem (Qin et al. 2023). In the region, fire has been indiscriminately and uncontrollably employed for many years (Pivello 2011) to open and maintain areas, as it was a quick, practical and inexpensive alternative that required no equipment, considering only the economic costs for its execution (Silveira et al. 2020). Despite many studies showing the environmental and financial damage caused by burning, the practice of fire use remains deeply rooted in agricultural activities and land management in the region (de Oliveira Andrade 2019; da Silva Junior et al. 2022). Therefore, even with mechanisms attempting to control, reduce and even prohibit it, fire continues to be one of the major contributors to environmental problems in the Amazon, introducing new complexities into the environmental and social management of the Amazon biome (Silva et al. 2021).
The year 2019 marked a critical period in the number and intensity of fires in the Amazon, followed by the subsequent year (2020), which recorded over 312,140 km² of burned area in Brazil, 46.3% occurring in the Amazon region alone (Jakimow et al. 2023; Aparecido et al. 2024). Always regarded as an essential ecosystem for life on Earth owing to its importance in sequestering and storing carbon vital for climate stability, the Amazon is nearing a tipping point of transforming into a carbon emitter driven by wildfires exacerbated by climate change (Gatti et al. 2021; Fawcett et al. 2023). In addition to the devastating ecological impact, these fires trigger adverse effects on public health, food security and local economies (Morello et al. 2022; de Freitas et al. 2023). Biomass burning releases large quantities of particulate matter and toxic and greenhouse gases, contributing to severe health issues, including respiratory diseases and an increased risk of cancer (de Andrade Filho et al. 2017; Butt et al. 2022; Ribeiro et al. 2024b).
Moreover, the fire use practices of indigenous and local communities, which are fundamental for subsistence agriculture and cultural land management, face increasing legal and environmental restrictions (Martins et al. 2012). These restrictions often overlook traditional knowledge and the needs of the communities, leading to conflicts and additional difficulties (Walker et al. 2020; Guerrero-Moreno et al. 2024; Ma et al. 2024; Silva 2024). The situation is exacerbated by climate change, which, by raising temperatures and extending dry periods in the region, intensifies the frequency and severity of wildfires, challenging traditional fire management strategies and increasing the vulnerability of these communities (Silva et al. 2021; Morello 2023).
In Brazil, the Amazon, Cerrado and Pantanal biomes have been the target of many wildfires (Machado et al. 2024). In the political landscape, responses to the growing issue of fires in the Amazon have evolved by implementing robust public policies aimed at integrated and sustainable fire management (Gillespie 2021; Sample et al. 2022). Significant initiatives include promoting management practices that reduce the need for burning for land clearing, supported by policies that facilitate access to modern agricultural and forestry management technologies (Morello and Falcão 2020; Frimpong et al. 2023). For example, financing for acquiring tractors and farming equipment has contributed to strategies for mitigating fires (Morello 2022). Additionally, creating protected areas and implementing stricter legislation are part of efforts to preserve this critical biome (Silva Junior et al. 2020; Sample et al. 2022).
These policies are complemented by an increasing recognition of the importance of traditional knowledge from local communities, integrating their practices and rights into fire management strategies (Mason et al. 2012). However, even with a consistent legal framework, without effective management and oversight by environmental agencies, it becomes practically null, as has happened in Brazil in recent years (Ferrante and Fearnside 2020). The Federal Government showed no commitment to social issues, cutting investments and resources from environmental agencies and preventing them from conducting field actions while encouraging environmentally questionable practices (Ferrante and Fearnside 2019). The result was a period marked by recurring increases in deforestation rates and record-high fires (Jakimow et al. 2023). Since taking office in 2023, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva’s administration has reversed many of the policies of its predecessor, significantly increasing investments in environmental agencies like IBAMA (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis) and ICMBio (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade). This shift in focus has led to a noticeable decline in deforestation and fire activity in the Amazon, supported by both renewed funding for conservation initiatives and more vigorous enforcement of environmental regulations, along with revitalized international partnerships such as the Amazon Fund (Pereira et al. 2024). These changes starkly contrast with previous years, where lack of investment and weakened protections escalated deforestation and fires (Jakimow et al. 2023).
The complexity and interdisciplinarity of fires in the Amazon require holistic management that integrates multiple dimensions, including climate change, socioeconomic factors and health impacts. Bibliometrics is a rigorous method for exploring and analyzing large volumes of scientific data that allows the visualization of the evolutionary nuances of a specific field of knowledge and sheds light on emerging areas of research (Donthu et al. 2021). It also enables the synthesis of diverse perspectives, revealing connections, emerging research areas and underexplored topics in the existing literature (Oliveira-Junior et al. 2022). Integrating studies that address everything from carbon dynamics to the socioeconomic and public health consequences of fires in the Amazon is essential for understanding the causal relationships and scales of the impact that fires can cause. Moreover, this approach facilitates the identification of areas where research is most urgent and where policies and interventions can be directed more effectively (Guerrero-Moreno and Oliveira-Junior 2024a).
In light of this complex and challenging scenario, this study aims to explore the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon through a bibliometric analysis, highlighting trends, gaps and areas of most significant scientific relevance. Six guiding questions for the study were established: (i) what is the temporal distribution of research? (ii) Which countries have the highest academic production or collaboration networks among countries/countries most cited? (iii) What are the most relevant research themes? (iv) What type of fire is mentioned in the articles (agricultural and deliberate burning, wildfires) (v) Which states and regions are most studied? (vi) What are the social, economic and ecological impacts the fires cause?
Materials and methods
Search and selection process
To explore trends and identify gaps in research on the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon, we conducted a systematic review of articles published in the Scopus (Elsevier) and Web of Science (WoS) (Clarivate Analytics) databases. We selected these platforms owing to Scopus’s extensive journal coverage and the multidisciplinary nature provided by WoS, ensuring a broad yet detailed view of the available literature across various fields of knowledge (Guerrero-Moreno and Oliveira-Junior 2024a, 2024b).
The keywords were selected based on synonyms in the literature on fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. The search strategy adopted on both platforms was: (TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘fire’ OR ‘burned’ OR ‘forest fires’) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Brazilian Amazon’ OR ‘Amazon Brazil’ OR ‘Amazon rainforest’) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(impacts OR ‘environmental effect’ OR ‘climate change’ OR ‘adaptations’ OR management)) AND (LIMIT-TO(DOCTYPE, ‘ar’)). We excluded reviews, conference papers, or book chapters. Only peer-reviewed articles were selected, representing the most reliable source for literature reviews in their full versions (Garza-Reyes 2015; de Oliveira et al. 2019). The document search limited the results to scientific articles published between 1997 and 2024. This time frame was chosen because the first article found in our searches on the subject was published in 1997, closing with documents closest to the search period (September 2024) to include the maximum number of articles possible.
We did not restrict the search to a specific domain area, as this is a multidisciplinary topic. This approach allowed us to obtain a greater volume of records, ensuring the sample’s representativeness from a global perspective. Linguistic criteria were also not considered for exclusion. Although there is debate about the impact of linguistic criteria on bibliometric analysis, we chose to include publications regardless of the language of publication. This approach enables the identification and synthesis of relevant evidence more comprehensively, considering that publications in different languages can provide unique contexts and perspectives (van Raan 2005). This resulted in 184 articles in English, 7 in Portuguese and 1 in Spanish for analysis. The search was conducted on 30 September 2024, across the selected databases (WoS and Scopus). However, it is essential to note that selecting databases and search criteria may introduce potential biases into the research. For a more detailed discussion of these limitations, we encourage readers to refer to the section ‘Limitations and future research’.
Data integration and cleaning
After the searches, 514 articles were found downloaded in CSV format for consolidation. We used RStudio (Version 4.3.1) to merge the data and automatically remove duplicates, resulting in a database of 374 documents. Integrating the two databases reduced the risk of losing relevant data. Subsequently, we manually reviewed the 374 documents to eliminate any potential duplicates, as variations in references may escape the evaluation performed by the software (Guerrero-Moreno and Oliveira-Junior 2024a). Additionally, we removed articles that were not aligned with the scope of the research, resulting in 182 articles being excluded. We then generated an Excel file to meticulously analyze titles, abstracts, keywords, materials and methods, aiming to identify (i) the temporal distribution of the research; (ii) the countries with the highest academic production and collaboration networks between countries/most cited countries; (iii) the most relevant research themes; (iv) the type of fire cited in the articles (burns/wildfires); (v) the most studied states; and (vi) the social, economic and ecological impacts. Only articles related to the topic were included. After this process, we selected 192 articles for detailed analysis (Fig. 1).
Classification and organization of information
The information contained in the articles was organized and classified into the following:
Types of fire: (a) forest fires: articles that discuss uncontrolled fires occurring in forested or densely vegetated areas, which can be caused by natural factors or anthropogenic activities (Farid et al. 2024); (b) biomass burning: documents that address the practice of using fire to burn organic matter, such as agricultural residues, dry leaves and other plant debris (Bevan et al. 2009). This practice is described for clearing land, preparing soil for cultivation, or reducing waste accumulation; and (c) slash-and-burn practice: articles that describe ‘slash-and-burn’, which involves cutting down trees and burning residual vegetation to convert forested areas into arable land (Carmenta et al. 2013).
Classification of the Legal Amazon region: (a) Western Amazon: articles based on the states of Acre, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Rondônia or Roraima; (b) Eastern Amazon: studies conducted in the states of Pará, Maranhão, Tocantins, or Amapá; and (c) Eastern and Western Amazon: articles that were based on some states belonging to both the western and eastern Amazon, for example, Amazonas and Pará.
Classification of the states of the Brazilian Amazon: (a) Legal Amazon: refers to articles that address the Brazilian Amazon region without focusing on or describing a specific study area or state; (b) Acre; (c) Amapá; (d) Amazonas; (e) Mato Grosso; (f) Pará; (g) Rondônia; (h) Roraima; (i) Tocantins; and (j) Maranhão.
From reading the articles, we identified the following impacts: (a) ecological impacts: this category includes research that explores the effects of fire on biodiversity and the structure of ecosystems. It encompasses the reduction or loss of biodiversity, alteration of flora and fauna community composition, and difficulty in the regeneration of native species after burning events; (b) climate impacts: publications in this category discuss how fire influences regional and global climate conditions, including changes in precipitation patterns, increased local temperatures and contributions to greenhouse gas emissions; (c) emissions and pollution: research falling under this category examines the consequences of pollutant emissions resulting from burning, including the concentration of particulate matter and its effects on air quality and public health; (d) health and quality of life impacts: articles in this category address the direct and indirect effects of fire use on the health of local populations, including respiratory problems associated with smoke and air pollution; and (e) socioeconomic impacts: works that describe how fire affects ecosystem services, the local economy and communities dependent on natural resources.
Data analysis
To evaluate the temporal distribution of the research, we used a line graph, where we plotted the number of publications per year. To analyze the countries with the highest academic output in the field of study, we used a bar chart representing the number of articles published by each country. To identify patterns of scientific production, we created a choropleth map. To identify the most relevant research themes, we generated a thematic map. We used a bar chart to evaluate the types of fire addressed in scientific articles about the impact of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. To analyze the regional distribution of the effects of fire use on Legal Amazon, we used a colored map to indicate the proportion of articles published by each state. For all analyses, we used RStudio software and the Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny packages (Version 4.1.4).
Results and discussion
Temporal distribution of research
The period of highest scientific productivity regarding the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon occurred between 2017 and 2024, with 106 publications, representing 55% of the total articles analyzed. The year 2020 stood out as the most productive, with 19 published articles, corresponding to 10% of the overall output. In contrast, 1997, 1998 and 2007 recorded the lowest academic production, with only one publication each year, representing 22% of the total articles analyzed. The annual growth rate was 11% (Fig. 2, Supplementary Table T1).
Annual scientific article production on the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
This spike in interest, particularly evident in 2020 with 19 publications, appears to be a direct response to the intensified fires in the region the previous year and growing global alarm regarding climate change and the preservation of tropical forests (Aragão et al. 2018). Events such as the 2019 wildfires, which received extensive media and international coverage, catalyzed research, as highlighted by recent studies (Silveira et al. 2020; da Silva Junior et al. 2022; Aparecido et al. 2024).
Additionally, controversial statements and extensive media exposure of the then-president, Jair Messias Bolsonaro, regarding the Amazon amplified environmentalists’ accusations, resulting in significant international coverage (Trajber Waisbich 2024). Furthermore, the periods of highest scientific production concerning the impacts of fire in the Brazilian Amazon also coincide with the highest deforestation rates in the Legal Amazon, with a total of 10,129 km² of deforested area in 2019, 10,851 km in 2020 and 13,038 km² in 2021 (INPE 2023a).
We cannot overlook the impact that global conferences on climate and biodiversity have on media attention and academic production related to preserving the Amazon and climate change. Each edition of the Climate COP (Conference of Parties) ((COP UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) and the Biodiversity COP (COP CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)) sees a substantial increase in international interest and discussions regarding environmental policies and the preservation of critical ecosystems, including the Amazon (Gupta and Singh 2023). These events highlight global ecological and moral issues, generating a spike in media interest while also driving academic research that aims to provide scientific support for public policy formulation (Pereira et al. 2012; Gupta and Singh 2023). For instance, the COPs held close to 2019, such as COP24 in 2018 in Poland and COP25 in 2019 in Chile (relocated to Madrid, Spain), emphasized the importance of reducing carbon emissions and raised concerns about biodiversity loss in tropical regions (UNFCCC 2018). These events reflect a synergy between scientific production and the socio-environmental and political context, where conferences like COP serve as catalysts for public attention and funding for studies related to the Amazon (Tollefson 2021; Gupta and Singh 2023).
Moreover, the extensive literature from this period focuses on the ecological repercussions of fire, primarily elucidating the loss of biomass and the degradation of ecosystem services (Fawcett et al. 2023). Fire, when used indiscriminately, significantly alters the dynamics of local ecosystems and compromises the forest’s function as a carbon sink, a crucial aspect of global climate regulation (Silvestrini et al. 2011; Gatti et al. 2021; Fawcett et al. 2023). The importance of the Amazon for global climate balance is indisputable; the intensification of deforestation and increase in fires result in substantial emissions of greenhouse gases, jeopardizing the entire planet and challenging global efforts to mitigate climate change (Gatti et al. 2021; Qin et al. 2021).
In addition to the ecological damage, the socioeconomic impacts of wildfires are also profound, affecting local communities (Ribeiro et al. 2024a), which are often the most vulnerable populations and suffer the consequences most acutely. The health of these communities is directly harmed by smoke inhalation, while the destruction of crops compromises food security, exacerbating land conflicts triggered by illegal agricultural expansion (Aparecido et al. 2024; Ribeiro et al. 2024b). This scenario reinforces the urgency for public policies integrating traditional fire management knowledge while strengthening environmental legislation to protect these vulnerable communities (Mistry et al. 2019; Menezes and Barbosa 2021; Vázquez-Varela et al. 2022).
Recent literature also criticizes the effectiveness of wildfire combat policies implemented after 2019 (Silveira et al. 2020), pointing to the need for a more coordinated and long-term approach (Menezes and Barbosa 2021; Oliveira et al. 2022). There is a call for a system that is resistant and resilient to pressures, regardless of the federal government’s ideology in power (Ferrante and Fearnside 2019). Wildfire combat policies should combine effective enforcement, incentives for sustainable agricultural practices and the promotion of protected areas to overcome the fragmentation of government actions and the fragility of environmental institutions (Pfaff et al. 2015; Alencar et al. 2022). This should operate as a state policy with clear short-, medium- and long-term goals.
The recent decline in publications after 2020, potentially attributed to reduced public funding for Brazilian science and the devaluation of environmental issues, reflects even more significant challenges (Menezes and Barbosa 2021; Oliveira et al. 2022). Scientific research must be continuously funded, and its findings must be applied through collaborative efforts between academia, government and local communities (Rose et al. 2020; Martínez-Vega and Rodríguez-Rodríguez 2022; Hsieh and Yeh 2024). Only then can evidence-based policies promote real change in fire management and the protection of the Amazon (Irahola et al. 2022; Hsieh and Yeh 2024) and sustainable forest use. A recent study has already demonstrated that, despite the Amazon’s importance to the world, the investment that institutions and Amazonian researchers receive to conduct their biodiversity research is much lower than allocations for other regions of Brazil (Stegmann et al. 2024). This shows that, unfortunately, practical actions are still very different from rhetoric. Therefore, we hope that the COP30 in 2025 on the Amazon can indeed serve as a turning point, leading to implementing action and investment policies in the region.
Regarding the use of fire, Law No. 14944, dated 31 July 2024 (Brasil 2024a), enacted the National Integrated Fire Management Policy in 2024. This policy aims to promote inter-institutional coordination to reduce the incidence of and damage caused by forest fires in Brazilian territory. It also recognizes fire’s ecological role in ecosystems and respects traditional knowledge and practices regarding the use of fire.
Furthermore, the current Brazilian federal government published Decree No. 12173 on 10 September 2024 (Brasil 2024b), establishing the National Integrated Fire Management Committee. This committee is responsible for proposing norms for implementing the National Integrated Fire Management Policy, establishing guidelines for mobilizing physical and financial resources across different government levels and proposing instruments to analyze the impacts of fires and integrated fire management on land use changes, ecosystem conservation, public health, flora, fauna and climate change.
Analysis of academic production by country
Academic production on the impact of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon reflects relevant geopolitical and scientific dynamics. Brazil has 111 publications (58%), highlighting local researchers’ direct involvement with the region’s realities. This result is consistent, given that 60% of the Amazon lies within Brazilian borders (West et al. 2019) and that the forest plays a crucial role in global climate balance as one of the most extensive tropical forests in the world (Moreira 2024) (Fig. 3, Supplementary Table 2).
Countries with the highest academic production regarding the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. Information is based on the affiliation of the first author. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
However, the significant contribution of countries from the Global North stands out, with the USA (n = 32), the United Kingdom (n = 20) and Germany (n = 6) accounting for approximately 30% of total publications. These countries have extensive academic collaboration networks, substantial financial resources and renowned research groups, facilitating their engagement in high-relevance international research (Guerrero-Moreno and Oliveira-Junior 2024a). The prominent presence of these countries can be viewed both as a legitimate effort for scientific collaboration in favor of conservation and as an extension of neocolonial interests, considering the historical influence of the Global North on natural resource issues and geopolitics in the Amazon (Gewin 2023; Hupke 2023).
Despite lacking direct sovereignty over the Amazon, these countries exert considerable influence on knowledge production and funding allocation, raising questions about control and the application of these data for conservation purposes (Baker 2023; Rakotonarivo and Andriamihaja 2023). Furthermore, these countries’ financial capacity and cutting-edge research groups enhance their presence in scientific production, often without a fully integrated understanding of local realities (Osborne et al. 2024). This international knowledge must align with local needs to prevent global policies or solutions from being applied ineffectively or harmful to the Amazon, disregarding the genuine aspirations of local communities (Baker 2023).
Thus, although the scientific contributions of foreign countries are valuable, leadership in managing and adapting fire use in the Amazon must originate from Brazilian efforts, grounded in local scientific knowledge and direct involvement of the region’s populations (Schmidt et al. 2021; Eufemia et al. 2022; da Silva et al. 2024b). Only in this way will it be possible to ensure that actions are suitable for the ecological and social complexity of the Amazon, rather than mere reflections of foreign interests (Osborne et al. 2024).
The analysis of scientific collaborations between countries highlights the importance of international research networks for globally relevant issues, such as the impact of fire use in the Amazon (Celis et al. 2023). Brazil, as holder of the majority of the Amazon Rainforest (Moreira 2024), leads in collaborations, especially with the United States and the United Kingdom, two countries with significant purchasing power and cutting-edge scientific infrastructure (Guerrero-Moreno and Oliveira-Junior 2024a) (Fig. 4, Supplementary Tables 3, 4). These data reflect the global interest in critical environmental topics, especially considering the Amazon’s relevance to global climate balance (Li et al. 2023).
Scientific collaboration between countries and the most cited countries. The choropleth map highlights collaborations between countries (above), darker areas (dark blue) indicate higher frequency. In comparison, lighter areas (light blue) indicate lower collaboration. Gray areas represent countries with no reported academic production on the subject. The red lines connect countries that collaborate on publications. The table presents the total number of citations accumulated (TC) by country (below). Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
The strong presence of the USA and the United Kingdom in scientific collaborations with Brazil can be explained by their economic power and established global research networks, which facilitate resource mobilization and the development of international projects (McManus et al. 2020) (Fig. 4). These collaborations are essential for bringing local and global knowledge to the forefront, balancing the impact of fire on the Amazon with international approaches to preservation and environmental management (Wagner et al. 2015).
However, the presence of countries from the Global North also raises discussions about power imbalances in scientific collaborations (Gewin 2023). Although the Amazon is a strategic natural resource for Brazil, controlling and disseminating knowledge about this region often occurs in foreign research centers (Rakstiņš et al. 2024). Therefore, most intellectual property and potential patents must be considered and discussed, particularly concerning bioeconomy issues. This scenario raises concerns about scientific neocolonialism, where countries with greater research infrastructure may dominate the narratives and decisions regarding managing natural resources in developing countries (Lynch et al. 2023).
However, the predominance of articles originating from Brazil (35% average citations) reflects robust local production and recognition by the international scientific community of the importance of studies developed in Brazil on the subject. This reinforces the idea that, despite international collaborations, local initiatives must lead discussions on management policies and adaptations related to the use of fire in the Amazon (Gewin 2023).
Most relevant research topics
The thematic map positions the main research themes in four quadrants: (i) basic themes (high centrality and low density); (ii) motor themes (high centrality and high density); (iii) niche themes (low centrality and high density); and (iv) emerging or declining themes (low centrality and low density). The size of the spheres represents the relative frequency of each theme in literature. At the same time, the position on the x-axis (degree of centrality) and the y-axis (degree of development) indicates its relevance and maturity within the field of study (Fig. 5).
Thematic map of publications on the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
The map highlights the motor themes ‘deforestation,’ ‘fire,’ ‘drought’ and ‘tropical forests’. These themes are centrally positioned, demonstrating their fundamental importance in understanding the environmental dynamics of the Amazon.The relationship between deforestation and fires is considered a particularly critical dynamic (Lima et al. 2024), where burning practices for land clearing not only exacerbate the loss of forest cover but also increase the region’s vulnerability to subsequent fires during dry periods (Halofsky et al. 2020; Wasserman and Mueller 2023). Moreover, this practice negatively impacts biodiversity and the local microclimate, intensifying the cycle of drought and degradation (Jakimow et al. 2023).
The basic themes identified as ‘climate change,’ ‘remote sensing’ and ‘forest fires’ form the foundation of many studies by providing the essential data and methods to monitor and understand environmental changes (Jakimow et al. 2023; Massey et al. 2023). The use of remote sensing, for example, has been fundamental in tracking the extent and frequency of fires (Hamilton et al. 2023; Liu et al. 2024), providing critical data that help correlate fire events with global and local climate changes (Chuvieco et al. 2020). This theme remains relevant as it provides the tools for real-time analysis of fire threats to tropical forests (Jones et al. 2024; Liu et al. 2024). In Brazil, the National Institute for Space Research (INPE) implements the Burned Areas Program, which has information on fire hotspots over different periods, reaching almost real-time updates (every 10 min). The program also quantifies burned area and analyzes other fire-related variables (Higa et al. 2022), contributing to the planning of enforcement actions, assisting governments and their environmental agencies, as well as society, in planning practical actions to control these processes in the Amazon (INPE 2023b).
Emerging themes, such as ‘biomass burning,’ ‘air pollution’ and ‘forest fires’ reflect areas of increasing focus in current research, mainly owing to their impacts on public health and the environment. Biomass burning, in particular, has attracted more attention owing to its significant contribution to atmospheric pollution and respiratory problems in local populations (Oluwole et al. 2012; Ribeiro et al. 2024b). Recent studies demonstrate that the emissions generated by this practice release delicate particulate matter (PM2.5) and toxic pollutants that can trigger or exacerbate respiratory diseases, such as chronic bronchitis, asthma and acute respiratory infections (de Andrade Filho et al. 2017; Pardo et al. 2020). These health issues are particularly prevalent in communities near where fires occur, where prolonged exposure to the particles significantly increases the risk of severe respiratory illnesses (Tajudin et al. 2024). This is becoming an increasing public health concern, highlighting the need for more effective fire management and environmental health policies, primarily to mitigate the impacts of these emissions and protect vulnerable populations (Oluwole et al. 2012).
Types of fire
The predominance of publications on wildfires (n = 129) compared with biomass burning (n = 52) and slash-and-burn practices (n = 11) reveals an interesting dynamic in global research agendas (Fig. 6). This disproportionate focus reflects, in part, the growing global awareness of wildfires as a critical threat to climate balance and global biodiversity (de Oliveira et al. 2023), particularly in the Amazon, which has historically played a key role as a carbon sink and regulator of the planet’s climate (de Oliveira Andrade 2019).
Most relevant types of fire in the scientific literature on the impact of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
In the Amazon, wildfires are the most frequent and impactful type of fire, driven mainly by deforestation and land-use changes (Feldpausch et al. 2022). This prevalence helps explain their prominence in research agendas. Additionally, the focus on wildfires contributes to media and political pressures that prioritize the visibility of tropical forests in climate change discussions (de Oliveira Andrade 2019). Wildfires, often exacerbated by drought linked to global warming, are treated as large-scale crises, gaining significant international media attention and attracting increased funding for research (Li et al. 2023). However, traditional practices like slash-and-burn, used by local populations for subsistence, receive less scientific attention, even though their cumulative impacts can be significant at the regional level (Mendes et al. 2023; Drobyshev et al. 2024). Although slash-and-burn is traditionally associated with shifting agriculture linked to family-scale farming (Vieira et al. 2007), its low representation in the literature points to an undervaluation of local knowledge and traditional fire management practices (Rahman et al. 2017).
Biomass burning, often associated with agricultural management and deforestation, also deserves greater attention. Although this practice is viewed as more controlled and frequently beneficial for nutrient renewal in the soil, its cumulative impact can have severe implications for greenhouse gas emissions and the degradation of forest areas (Prosperi et al. 2020). Biomass burning, often mediated by large-scale agricultural practices, raises questions about land governance and the tensions between industrial agriculture and conservation, central themes in the debate over the sustainable use of the Amazon (Neate-Clegg and Şekercioğlu 2020).
Therefore, this imbalance in academic production highlights the urgent need for a more inclusive and holistic approach considering large forest fires and local fire management practices such as slash-and-burn. Integrating these aspects can provide a richer understanding of the impacts and possible solutions for the Amazon’s sustainability. The challenge for future research is to transcend the dichotomy between global and local practices, recognizing the intersections between global climate change, resource management and traditional knowledge. Only by broadening the analytical lens will it be possible to adequately address the socio-environmental complexity of the Amazon, promoting more equitable and environmentally just solutions.
States and regions of the Brazilian Amazon most studied regarding the impact of fire
Regarding the impact of fire at the state level in Brazil, there has been a predominance of studies in the Legal Amazon (all states) (n = 110; 57%), Pará (n = 29; 15%), Amazonas (n = 20; 10%), Mato Grosso (n = 15; 8%), Acre (n = 11; 6%) and Rondônia (n = 11; 6%). Thus, at the regional level, the most representative studies were conducted in both the Eastern and Western Amazon (n = 119; 62%), followed by studies focused on the Western Amazon (n = 38; 20%), and then studies conducted in the Eastern Amazon (n = 35; 18%) (Fig. 7, Supplementary Table 5).
States and regions of the Brazilian Amazon most studied regarding the impact of fire. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024). RR, Roraima; AP, Amapá; AM, Amazonas; PA, Pará; AC, Acre; RO, Rondônia; MT, Mato Grosso; TO, Tocantins; MA, Maranhão. The area highlighted in dark green corresponds to the Legal Amazon.
The use of fire in the Brazilian Amazon and its associated impacts have garnered increasing attention in the scientific literature, with a high concentration of studies in the Legal Amazon, which includes all Brazilian Amazon states (57%). This predominance reflects the ecological and territorial importance of the region, which covers nearly 60% of the national territory and plays a crucial role in global biodiversity and climate regulation (Aragão et al. 2018). Both anthropogenic and natural fires have devastating effects on this biome, highlighting the need for studies that support mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate change (Brando et al. 2020).
The state of Pará (15%) is the most studied owing to its vast forest area, high deforestation rates and extensive use of fire, especially at the agricultural–forest interface, where agricultural expansion activities predominate (Anderson et al. 2015; Furtado et al. 2024). Fire in Pará significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and intensifies climate change (van der Werf et al. 2010; Aragão et al. 2018).
Amazonas (10%) stands out for its cultural use of fire, which is still difficult to replace (Cabral et al. 2013). Despite 95% of the state being covered by forests, deforestation has been increasing in critical areas owing to agricultural expansion and the development of infrastructure such as the BR-319 road, which crosses Indigenous lands and traditional communities (Ferrante et al. 2020; Chaves et al. 2024).
Other relevant states include Mato Grosso (8%), Acre (6%) and Rondônia (6%), where fire use is associated with the advancement of agribusiness, especially cattle ranching, often linked to illegal deforestation (Shimabukuro et al. 2020). The AMACRO region, consisting of Amazonas, Acre and Rondônia, has seen high rates of deforestation and fires in the last 10 years, intensifying the deforestation arc in the Amazon (da Silva et al. 2023; Chaves et al. 2024).
Regional analysis shows that most studies cover the Eastern and Western Amazon (62%), whereas 20% focus exclusively on the Western and 18% on the Eastern Amazon. The Western Amazon, which includes Amazonas, Acre, Rondônia and Roraima, faces challenges such as agricultural frontier expansion and increasing fire frequency due to climate change (Barni et al. 2021; da Silva et al. 2023). However, the Eastern Amazon, which encompasses Pará, Maranhão, Amapá, Tocantins and Mato Grosso, has been historically more impacted by deforestation, cattle ranching, logging and large-scale soybean cultivation (Briant et al. 2010). These activities result in higher carbon emissions in the Eastern Amazon than in the Western Amazon, owing to spatial differences in carbon dioxide emissions from fires (Gatti et al. 2021). These regional differences highlight the need for fire management policies that consider local specifics and go beyond forest cover conservation to mitigate climate impacts and protect biodiversity (Barlow et al. 2016).
Socioeconomic and ecological impacts of fire in the Brazilian Amazon
The most common impacts associated with the use of fire in the Brazilian Amazon are ecological (n = 84; 35%); emissions and pollution (n = 72; 30%), climatic impacts (n = 40; 15%) and socioeconomic effects were documented (n = 32; 13%) (Fig. 8).
Most common impacts associated with the use of fire in the Brazilian Amazon. More than one type of conflict was reported in the same article. Databases used: Scopus and Web of Science (1997 to September 2024).
The impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon reflect a complex interaction of ecological, climatic and social factors, which have been documented by various scientific studies analyzed in the present research. Firstly, ecological impacts account for the most significant percentage in the literature (35%). The use of fire, especially in the context of activities such as deforestation and agricultural expansion, alters soil composition, reduces forest cover and directly affects the Amazonian fauna and flora (Mestre et al. 2013; Brando et al. 2014). Research has shown that the recurrent use of fire degrades the recovery capacity of Amazonian ecosystems, leading to a transition from dense forest to degraded savannas, which affects both plant and animal species, a situation that becomes more complex with extreme climatic events (Brando et al. 2014).
Another fundamental aspect highlighted in the results is the significant contribution of fire to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution (30%). Recent studies have indicated that wildfires in the Amazon generate massive amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), intensifying global warming (Silva et al. 2020). Studies confirm that CO2 concentrations are higher in the Amazon than in the surrounding region during the fire and dry seasons, transforming it from a carbon sink to a source of CO2 (Aragão et al. 2018; Gatti et al. 2021). Furthermore, the smoke from these fires affects the atmosphere locally and disperses at regional and global levels, exacerbating the climate crisis (Aragão et al. 2018). According to recent research, emissions from fires in the Amazon may influence large-scale climate patterns, including changes in rainfall distribution (Aragão et al. 2018; Silva 2024).
The reported climatic impacts (15%) are also significant. In this regard, the loss of forest biomass, caused by fire, reduces the carbon sink and modifies hydrological patterns and the dynamics of climatic systems in the region (Gatti et al. 2021). The Amazon plays a crucial role in climate regulation, and its degradation can alter the water cycle, reducing evapotranspiration and affecting water availability in other regions (Flores et al. 2024). This is relevant because the Amazon rainforest contributes up to 50% of the precipitation in the area and is crucial for providing moisture in South America (Staal et al. 2018). Studies have shown that the intensification of fires can increase the duration of dry seasons, increasing the ecosystem’s susceptibility to new fires (Aragão et al. 2018).
Although socioeconomic impacts represent a smaller percentage (13%), their effects can be devastating locally. The use of fire, especially in rural areas, can lead to the loss of livelihoods, decrease agricultural productivity and directly affect the economies of local communities, many of which are trapped in increasingly risky agricultural practices with lower income (Bowman et al. 2008; Cammelli et al. 2020). Furthermore, fire use can threaten food security, by destroying crops, reducing local supply and increasing reliance on external food sources. This, in turn, raises costs and heightens community vulnerability (da Silva et al. 2024a; Ribeiro et al. 2024a). Even farmers with the time and resources to manage fire on their properties may suffer losses due to fires from neighboring lands (Carmenta et al. 2013). Such incidents often intensify land conflicts, particularly in areas where land is scarce or contested, exacerbating tensions among small farmers, large landowners and traditional communities (O’Hara et al. 2021). This has been widely documented, and it has been observed that the dependence on fire to clear agricultural land remains a common practice in certain Amazonian regions. Therefore, urgent political and economic interventions are needed to provide alternative means for local populations to develop their practices without being adversely affected (Cammelli et al. 2020).
Finally, impacts on health and quality of life (55%) should be considered. The smoke produced by the fires contains fine particles and pollutants that harm human health, increasing the incidence of respiratory diseases, especially among vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly (Ignotti et al. 2010). Studies indicate that drier conditions, elevated temperatures and reduced precipitation exacerbate fires, affecting hospital admissions for respiratory diseases (Rocha and Sant’Anna 2022; Ribeiro et al. 2024b). It has also been shown that greater exposure to fine particles from biomass burning leads to a higher frequency of micronucleus (indicator of genetic damage) in the epithelial cells of children (Sisenando et al. 2012). Other studies confirm that forest fires are risk factors for generating diseases and ailments, posing a significant threat to public health in the Brazilian Amazon (Hahn et al. 2014). Thus, significant changes in the Amazon’s forest and non-forest ecosystems imply the destruction of a rich biological, social and cultural heritage in the Anthropocene (Vieira et al. 2018). Management and adaptation strategies in the region must be based on a deep understanding of these multidimensional impacts and promote comprehensive approaches to mitigate the effects of fire locally and globally (Nepstad et al. 2014).
Conclusion
The results indicate that the unregulated use of fire has significantly contributed to environmental degradation in the Amazon, exacerbating biodiversity loss and adversely affecting the health of local communities. The analyzed data suggest that the intensification of fires is intrinsically linked to climate variations, necessitating an urgent review of fire use in agricultural and livestock practices. Our analysis underscores the need to develop adaptive management strategies integrating scientific knowledge and traditional practices. Fire management policies must be effectively implemented to be resilient to climate change and sensitive to the social and ecological complexities of the Amazon. Furthermore, we recommend expanding interdisciplinary research that explores alternative and sustainable land and fire management methods. International collaboration and adequate funding for these research initiatives are essential to ensure the effective implementation of recommendations and to mitigate future impacts of fire use. Promoting interdisciplinary research and collaboration among academic, governmental and community sectors is crucial for developing practical solutions that protect Amazonian biodiversity and improve the quality of life for local communities. Without coordinated and integrated actions, the challenges posed by fire use and climate change will continue to increase, jeopardizing the Amazon and global climate balance.
Limitations and future perspectives
Although the results of this study provide a comprehensive overview of the impacts of fire use in the Brazilian Amazon, several methodological limitations must be considered. First, the analysis was based on articles indexed in the Scopus and Web of Science databases. Although these platforms are widely recognized in bibliometric studies for their global coverage, some relevant publications, especially those published in regional journals or ones with lower impact factors, may not have been included. As a result, critical scientific contributions from local communities or countries with limited international visibility could be overlooked.
Additionally, we focused exclusively on peer-reviewed articles, excluding other types of publications such as book chapters and conference proceedings. This decision limited the incorporation of valuable perspectives and analyses and neglected conceptual studies that could have enriched the research landscape. Another limitation stems from the focus on bibliometric analysis, which identifies general patterns and trends but does not capture local dynamics in detail. Qualitative or interdisciplinary studies complement the results by providing a more integrated view of the implications of fire use in Amazonian communities, helping to understand the socio-cultural context behind the observed trends.
Furthermore, although the research did not impose linguistic restrictions, the journals in the selected databases are predominantly published in English, which may introduce a language bias. This gap is the importance of integrating scientific contributions published in local and regional languages, especially those documenting traditional practices and knowledge central to understanding fire use in the Amazon.
This study emphasizes the need for more inclusive and integrative approaches regarding fire use in the Amazon. Future analyses should broaden their scope to include regional and multidisciplinary data sources. This approach would help uncover unique and underexplored patterns, particularly in under-represented areas such as the western and central Amazon. Moreover, complementary methodologies, such as case studies, interviews with local communities and qualitative analyses, are essential for understanding fire use’s social and cultural implications. These approaches help identify adaptive strategies that respect traditional knowledge and align with local realities.
International and interdisciplinary collaboration is also critical to overcome funding and infrastructure gaps that limit regional scientific production. Partnerships between local and global researchers, with an emphasis on the co-production of knowledge, can promote more inclusive and equitable solutions, ensuring that science directly supports sustainable fire management. Finally, robust public policies integrating modern technology with respect for traditional practices are necessary. Strengthening initiatives like the National Integrated Fire Management Policy, which recognizes the importance of sustainable management for Amazonian biodiversity conservation and local communities’ well-being, is crucial for promoting long-term fire management solutions.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were generated or analyzed during this study.
Declaration of funding
This project is supported by Edital No. 13/2020 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) (PDPG Amazônia Legal) – Project 88881.510170/2020-01-PDPG_AL_CAPES_Auxpe 0786/2020. CAPES Finance Code 001. We are grateful for the support of the projects INCT Sínteses da Biodiversidade Amazônica (CNPq/MCTIC/INCT-2022 58/2022 process 406767/2022–0) the Programa de Pesquisa em Biodiversidade da Amazônia Oriental – PPBIO AmOr (CNPq/MCTI/FNDCT No. 07/2023 process 441257/2023–2).
Acknowledgements
This study was developed through the partnership between UFPA and UFOPA, higher education institutions in Brazil. We thank CNPQ (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) for the scholarship granted to E.S. (Process 141502/2024-0). CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior) MAGM (Process 88887. 622445/2021-00). We thank CNPQ (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) for the productivity scholarship granted to LJ (Process 304710/2019-9), JMBOJ (Process 307808/2022-0), and KDS (process 311550/2023-1).
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