Status of monitoring and evaluation of Tonga’s Special Management Area program

Nicholas Ford-Learner; Sophie Gordon; Patrick Smallhorn-West; Sioeli Afu; Latu Aisea; Viliami Fatongiatu; Lisiate Hanisi; Sela Kioa; Sesimani Lokotui; Katrina Ma’u Fatiaki; Poasi Ngaluafe; Vetekina Pau’u; George Shedrawi; Karen Stone; Tonga Tuiano; Siola’a Malimali

doi:10.1071/PC24003

REVIEW (Open Access)

Previous Next Contents Vol 30(5)

Status of monitoring and evaluation of Tonga’s Special Management Area program

Nicholas Ford-Learner

^A ^* , Sophie Gordon ^B , Patrick Smallhorn-West ^A ^C ^D , Sioeli Afu ^E , Latu Aisea ^F , Viliami Fatongiatu ^E , Lisiate Hanisi ^E , Sela Kioa ^E , Sesimani Lokotui ^G , Katrina Ma’u Fatiaki ^H , Poasi Ngaluafe ^E , Vetekina Pau’u ^E , George Shedrawi ^I , Karen Stone ^J , Tonga Tuiano ^E and Siola’a Malimali ^E

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, Australia.

^B Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld, Australia.

^C WorldFish, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia.

^D Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA.

^E Ministry of Fisheries, Nuku’alofa, Tongatapu, Tonga.

^F University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.

^G Civil Society Forum Consultancy Tonga, Nuku’alofa, Tongatapu, Tonga.

^H Tapuaki Mei Langi Consultancy, Nuku’alofa, Tonga.

^I The Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

^J Vava’u Environmental Protection Association, Vava’u, Tonga.

^* Correspondence to: nicholas.fordlearner@my.jcu.edu.au

Handling Editor: Alan Lymbery

Pacific Conservation Biology 30, PC24003 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC24003

Submitted: 26 January 2024 Accepted: 12 August 2024 Published: 2 September 2024

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Tonga’s Special Management Areas (SMAs) have been widely supported by the people of Tonga as a successful approach to the comanagement of their fisheries and marine resources. However, due to the dominant focus on expansion of the program over recent years, challenges remain for the effective and consistent monitoring and evaluation needed to understand program impacts. This review compiles all known ecological, fisheries, and socio-economic monitoring and evaluation reports related to Tonga’s Special Management Areas from 2010 onwards. A total of 25 projects with available reports were identified, with most examining ecological (42%) and socio-economic (42%) aspects of SMAs, whereas reporting on SMA fisheries data (e.g. catch) was limited to five available projects. Most studies also represented ‘baseline’ ecological and socio-economic surveys of SMAs during implementation. Only three studies have assessed the ecological impact of SMAs post intervention, and only one of these incorporated ‘follow-up’ surveys at a second time point. Among these, impacts remain mixed, with some SMAs resulting in larger and more abundant fish, but others showing no impact. Other monitoring challenges include no gender disaggregation of data, no monitoring of gleaning, haphazard monitoring by communities, and general concerns of cost, fit for purpose, and overinvestment. Although the limited available ecological data indicates that SMAs can increase fish size and abundance in some cases, rationalised, more efficient, and targeted monitoring is required to better understand and strengthen the functioning of SMAs and inform community and government management decisions.

Keywords: adaptive management, comanagement, ecological data, fish habitat reserve, gleaning, impacts, small-scale fisheries, socio-economic monitoring, Special Management Area.

References

Adams VM, Barnes M, Pressey RL (2019) Shortfalls in conservation evidence: moving from ecological effects of interventions to policy evaluation. One Earth 1, 62-75.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ahmadia GN, Glew L, Provost M, Gill D, Hidayat NI, Mangubhai S, Purwanto , Fox HE (2015) Integrating impact evaluation in the design and implementation of monitoring marine protected areas. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370, 20140275.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Anon (2017) Tonga: household income and expenditure, survey 2015–2016. p. 247. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

Atherton JN, McKenna SA, Wheatley A (2014) ‘Rapid biodiversity assessment of the Vava‘u Archipelago.’ (Kingdom of Tonga)

Bell J, Bright P, Gillett R, Keeble G, Kronen M, Passfield K, Ryan C (2008) Importance of household income and expenditure surveys and censuses for management of coastal and freshwater fisheries. SPC Fisheries Newsletter 127, 34-39.
| Google Scholar |

Bohensky E, Curnock M, Gillet S, Goldberg J, Gooch M, Marshall N, Pert P, Scherl L, Stone-Jovicich S, Tobin R (2014) The Social and Economic Long Term Monitoring Program (SELTMP) 2013: Drivers of change in the Great Barrier Reef. Report to the National Environmental Research Program. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre Limited, Cairns, 51 pp.

Breckwoldt A, Seidel H (2012) The need to know what to manage – community-based marine resource monitoring in Fiji. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4, 331-337.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Buckley R, Gomez-Buckley M, Stobart B, Stone K (2017) Vava‘u coral reef surveys 2017. p. 64. VEPA report No. 17.

Cara P (2021) Rapid assessment of priority coastal areas (RapCA) in the Hihifo District, Tongatapu. Social and economic report. Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji.

Ceccarelli D (2016) Vava‘u SMA Project Baseline Survey Technical Report. pp. 1–74.

Cinner J, Huchery C (2014) A comparison of social outcomes associated with different fisheries co-management institutions. Conservation Letters 7, 224-232.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cinner JE, McClanahan TR, MacNeil MA, Graham NAJ, Daw TM, Mukminin A, Feary DA, Rabearisoa AL, Wamukota A, Jiddawi N, Campbell SJ, Baird AH, Januchowski-Hartley FA, Hamed S, Lahari R, Morove T, Kuange J (2012) Comanagement of coral reef social-ecological systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, 5219-5222.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cohen P, Evans L, Govan H (2015) Community-based, co-management for governing small-scale fisheries of the Pacific: a Solomon Islands’ case study. In ‘Interactive governance for small-scale fisheries: global reflections’. (Eds S Jentoft, R Chuenpagdee) pp. 39–59. (Springer)

Di Franco A, Thiriet P, Di Carlo G, Dimitriadis C, Francour P, Gutiérrez NL, et al. (2016) Five key attributes can increase marine protected areas performance for small-scale fisheries management. Scientific Reports 6, 38135.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

FAO, VEPA, MoF (2020) Report of the national workshop on Special Management Areas: lessons learned. Food and Agriculture Organization, Vava‘u Environmental Protection Association, Tongan Ministry of Fisheries, Vava‘u, Tonga.

Ferraro PJ (2009) Counterfactual thinking and impact evaluation in environmental policy. New Directions for Evaluation 2009(122), 75-84.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ferraro PJ, Pressey RL (2015) Measuring the difference made by conservation initiatives: protected areas and their environmental and social impacts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370, 20140270.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gardner CJ, Cripps G, Day LP, Dewar K, Gough C, Peabody S, Tahindraza G, Harris A (2020) A decade and a half of learning from Madagascar’s first locally managed marine area. Conservation Science and Practice 2, e298.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gillett MN (2010) Success of special management areas in Tonga. Fisheries Newsletter 130, 27-30.
| Google Scholar |

Gillett R (2017) A review of Special Management Areas in Tonga. Food and Agriculture Organization Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular, C1137.

Gillett R, Fong M (2023) Fisheries in the economies of Pacific Island countries and territories (Benefish Study 4). p. 704. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

González-Rivero M, Bongaerts P, Beijbom O, Pizarro O, Friedman A, Rodriguez-Ramirez A, et al. (2014) The Catlin Seaview Survey–kilometre-scale seascape assessment, and monitoring of coral reef ecosystems. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 24, 184-198.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Govan H (2009) Achieving the potential of locally managed marine areas in the South Pacific. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin 25, 16-25.
| Google Scholar |

Govan H (2010) Information needs of Pacific coastal resource managers: the implications for research and monitoring. Discussion paper of the LMMA Network. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.34331.67360

Govan H (2015) Preliminary review of public expenditure of the fisheries agencies of Pacific Island countries and territories: Policy, operational budget and staffing support for coastal fisheries. Final report to the SPC Division of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystems.

Govan H, Comley J, Tan W, Guilbeaux M, Vave R (2011) Recommendations from ten years of monitoring under the LMMA Network’s learning framework. Drafting Team of the LMMA Network Learning Committee. LMMA Network, Suva.

Gurney GG, Darling ES (2017) A global social-ecological systems framework for coral reef fisheries: a practical monitoring handbook. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, 63 pp.

Hill JWC, Wilkinson C (2004) Methods for ecological monitoring of coral reefs a resource for managers. p. 117. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Townsville, Australia.

Imhof CG, Stone K, Ngaluafe P, Malimali S, Lalavanua W (2023) Tonga’s Special Management Area programme: Insights from communities, and considerations for upscaling community-based fisheries management in the region. SPC Fisheries Newsletter No. 170.

Johnson JE, Hooper E, Welch DJ (2020) Community Marine Monitoring Toolkit: a tool developed in the Pacific to inform community-based marine resource management. Marine Pollution Bulletin 159, 111498.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kaldin BK, Mattone C, Sheaves M (2020) Barriers to effective monitoring and evaluation of small-scale fisheries in small island developing states: an example from Mauritius. Marine Policy 118, 103845.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kittinger JN (2013) Human dimensions of small-scale and traditional fisheries in the Asia-Pacific region. Pacific Science 67, 315-325.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Léopold M, Cakacaka A, Meo S, Sikolia J, Lecchini D (2009) Evaluation of the effectiveness of three underwater reef fish monitoring methods in Fiji. Biodiversity and Conservation 18, 3367-3382.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Malimali S (2013) Socioeconomic and ecological implications of special management areas (SMAs) regime in the Kingdom of Tonga. PhD thesis, Prifysgol Bangor University, Bangor, Wales, UK.

Marre JB, Lalavanua W, Govan H (2021) National investments allocated to coastal fisheries and community-based fisheries management in the Pacific: a review of past monitoring efforts and recommendations. SPC Fisheries Newsletter No. 165.

McClanahan TR, Marnane MJ, Cinner JE, Kiene WE (2006) A comparison of marine protected areas and alternative approaches to coral-reef management. Current Biology 16, 1408-1413.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Mcleod E, Bruton-Adams M, Förster J, Franco C, Gaines G, Gorong B, James R, Posing-Kulwaum G, Tara M, Terk E (2019) Lessons from the Pacific Islands – adapting to climate change by supporting social and ecological resilience. Frontiers in Marine Science 6, 289.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Menaouer O, Sharp M, Pacific Community (2023) Tonga 2021 household income and expenditure survey report. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

MoF and VEPA (2022) Household survey of Special Management Area communities in Tonga: assessment for the monitoring and evaluation of the SMA programme. Tongan Ministry of Fisheries and Vava‘u Environmental Protection Association. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

MoF, Pacific Community, Food and Agriculture Organization, Vava’u Environmental Protection Association (2021) Household socio-economic survey to assess the impacts of the Special Management Area program on landlocked communities in Tonga. Vava’u Environmental Protection Association, Vava’u, Tonga.

MoF (2016) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2015/2016. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2017) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2016/2017. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2018) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2017/2018. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2019) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2018/2019. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2020) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2019/2020. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2021) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2020/21. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF (2022) Ministry of Fisheries annual report - financial year 2021/22. Ministry of Fisheries, Tongatapu, Tonga.

MoF, Food and Agriculture Organization, Pacific Community (2022) Special management area manual. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia, Pacific Community.

Montambault JR, Wongbusarakum S, Leberer T, Joseph E, Andrew W, Castro F, et al. (2015) Use of monitoring data to support conservation management and policy decisions in Micronesia. Conservation Biology 29, 1279-1289.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Moore B, Malimali S (2016) Demographic assessment of exploited coastal finfish species of Tongatapu, Tonga. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

Moore B, Bosserelle P, Mailau S, Siaosi V, Siaosi F, Havea T, Malimali S (2017) The status of sea cucumbers in the Kingdom of Tonga in 2016. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

Parks J (2017) Baseline socioeconomic survey of the Vava ‘u Special Management Areas (SMA) as a component of the Tonga climate resilience sector project MAFFF. Ministry of Meteorology, Energy, Information, Disaster Management, Environment, Climate Change, and Communications, Kingdom of Tonga.

Paul SAL, Wilson AMW, Cachimo R, Riddell MA (2016) Piloting participatory smartphone mapping of intertidal fishing grounds and resources in northern Mozambique: opportunities and future directions. Ocean & Coastal Management 134, 79-92.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pauly D (2006) Major trends in small-scale marine fisheries, with emphasis on developing countries, and some implications for the social sciences. Maritime studies 4, 7-22.
| Google Scholar |

Prescott J, Riwu J, Stacey N, Prasetyo A (2016) An unlikely partnership: fishers’ participation in a small-scale fishery data collection program in the Timor Sea. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 26, 679-692.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pressey RL, Visconti P, Ferraro PJ (2015) Making parks make a difference: poor alignment of policy, planning and management with protected-area impact, and ways forward. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370, 20140280.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Purkis S, Dempsey A, Carlton R, Samaniego B, Lubarsky K, Renaud PG (2017) Global Reef Expedition: Kingdom of Tonga, Vol. 8. Final Report. Khaled Bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation, Annapolis, MD.

Reis-Filho JA, Ramos-Filho F, Castello L, Giarrizzo T (2023) -I fish, therefore I monitor: participatory monitoring to assess inland small-scale fisheries. Environmental Management 72, 540-557.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Roscher MB, Eriksson H, Sharp M, Menaouer O, Andrew N (2023) Decadal characteristics of small-scale fishing livelihoods in 13 Pacific Island Countries and Territories. ICES Journal of Marine Science 80, 1963-1975.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ruano-Chamorro C, Subida MD, Fernández M (2017) Fishers’ perception: an alternative source of information to assess the data-poor benthic small-scale artisanal fisheries of central Chile. Ocean & Coastal Management 146, 67-76.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Shedrawi G, Bosserelle P, Malimali SA, Fatongiatau V, Mailau S, Magron F, Havea T, Finau S, Finau S, Aleamotua P, Halford A (2020) The status of sea cucumber stocks in the Kingdom of Tonga. Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.

Smallhorn-West PF, Sheehan J, Malimali S, Halafihi T, Bridge TCL, Pressey RL, Jones GP (2020a) Incentivizing co-management for impact: mechanisms driving the successful national expansion of Tonga’s Special Management Area program. Conservation Letters 13, e12742.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Smallhorn-West P, Sheehan J, Rodriguez-Troncoso A, Malimali S, Halafihi T, Mailau S, Le’ota A, Ceccarelli DM, Stone K, Pressey B (2020b) Kingdom of Tonga Special Management Area Report 2020.

Smallhorn-West PF, Stone K, Ceccarelli DM, Malimali S, Halafihi T, Bridge TCL, Pressey RL, Jones GP (2020c) Community management yields positive impacts for coastal fisheries resources and biodiversity conservation. Conservation Letters 13, e12755.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Smallhorn-West P, Cohen PJ, Phillips M, Jupiter SD, Govan H, Pressey RL (2022a) Linking small-scale fisheries co-management to U.N. Sustainable Development Goals. Conservation Biology 36, e13977.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Smallhorn-West PF, Cohen PJ, Morais RA, Januchowski-Hartley FA, Ceccarelli D, Malimali S, Stone K, Warren R, Cinner JE (2022b) Hidden benefits and risks of partial protection for coral reef fisheries. Ecology and Society 27, 26.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Smallhorn-West P, Abesamis R, Notere Boso D, Cinner J, Cohen P, Gelcich S, et al. (2023) ‘The fisheries co-management guidebook: emerging research for the effective management of small-scale fisheries.’ (Wildlife Conservation Society and WorldFish)

SPREP (2019) Tonga: state of the environment report 2018. Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program, Apia, Samoa.

Stevens K, Irwin B, Kramer D, Urquhart G (2014) Impact of increasing market access on a tropical small-scale fishery. Marine Policy 50, 46-52.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stone K, Menergink K, Estep A, Halafihi T, Malimali S, Matoto L (2017) Vava‘u Ocean Initiative Marine Expedition Interim Report. Vepa, Vava‘u, Tonga.

Stone K, Lokotui S, Kara P, Leger S (2021) Rapid Coastal Assessment (RapCA) in the Hihifo District, Tongatapu. Pacific Community, No. 46, Suva, Fiji.

Tonga Statistics Department (2017) Tonga Census of Population and Housing 2016, Vol. 1. Tonga Statistics Department, Nuku‘alofa, Tonga.

Tonga Statistics Department (2019) Tonga Census of Population and Housing 2016, Vol. 2. Tonga Statistics Department, Nuku‘alofa, Tonga.

Tonga Statistics Department (2021) Tonga Census of Population and Housing 2021. Tonga Statistics Department, Nuku‘alofa, Tonga.

Tupou Taufa S, Kara P, Aisea L, Koloi F, Matoto V, Fernandes L (2016) Feitu‘u Pule‘I Makehe (Special Management Areas, SMAs) – lessons learned. Draft report to the Government of Tonga and MACBIO, IUCN, GIZ, SPREP, Suva.

Webster FJ, Cohen PJ, Malimali S, Tauati M, Vidler K, Mailau S, Vaipuna L, Fatongiatau V (2017) Detecting fisheries trends in a co-managed area in the Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Research 186, 168-176.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zeller D, Harper S, Zylich K, Pauly D (2015) Synthesis of underreported small-scale fisheries catch in Pacific island waters. Coral Reefs 34, 25-39.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |