Gain and loss: reflection on the rapid development of National Wetland Parks in China

The growth of NWPs

In 2005, China initiated the pilot construction of NWPs. Initially, pilot NWPs were established through application and approval processes, with the State Forestry Administration conducting evaluations and granting the title of NWPs to those parks that met the criteria within 6 years. Hangzhou’s Xixi Wetland was among the first batch of pilot NWPs selected that year. Since then, the number of NWPs in China has experienced a remarkable growth. As of the end of 2019, 898 pilot NWPs were established, with 518 being officially designated as NWPs after evaluation. The total area protected by NWPs has expanded from zero to more than 36,000 km². The growth of NWPs in China can be delineated into the following three distinct phases, as illustrated in Fig. 2: the exploration phase (2005–2007), the expansion phase (2008–2014) and the normalisation phase (2015–present).

Fig. 2.

The growth of ‘pilot’ and ‘approved’ NWPs in China from 2005 to 2019. Data for NWPs from 2005 and 2017 are sourced from the statistic of State Forestry Administration published on Wetland China (see www.shidi.org). For 2018 and 2019, the authors reconstructed the data on the basis of announcements from the State Forestry Administration. The areas of approved NWPs in 2018 and 2019 have not been officially documented.

The promotion of wetland park construction first appeared in government documents in 2004. In particular, the 11th (2006–2010) 5 Year Plan for National Wetland Protection Projects (refer to Table 2) proposed the establishment of wetland park demonstration projects, leading to an initial increase in the number of NWPs. By February 2007, with the establishment of the National Wetland Conservation Management Centre, the number of pilot parks had reached 17.

After February 2007, the construction of NWPs was promoted across all 28 provinces of the country. The number of pilot NWPs increased tenfold during the next 3 years (Fig. 2). Particularly noteworthy was the period from 2011 to 2014, with a rapid expansion of pilot NWPs, average 200 new parks per year. The State Forestry Administration, responsible for NWPs in China, introduced a system for inspecting pilot NWPs and formalising their approval as NWPs in 2011, resulting in a significant increase in approved NWPs.

Since 2015, the growth of pilot NWPs has gradually slowed, whereas the number of officially approved NWPs grew quickly, indicating a shift in focus from merely increasing the quantity to enhancing the quality of NWPs. Furthermore, in 2007, the approval system was replaced by a promotion system following the publication of the ‘Management Rules on Wetland Protection’ (refer to Table 2). This regulation stipulated that the number of pilot NWPs would remain unchanged from 2017 to 2019. Simultaneously, the scrutiny of pilot NWPs became more stringent to ensure compliance with regulatory standards, which led to an increase in the number of pilot NWPs required to meet these standards within a specified timeframe, whereas others were disqualified.

The disproportionate clustering of NWPs

Although the total number of NWPs has been increasing, the increases among regions have not been even (see Fig. 3). Using GIS data and vector maps, we analysed the spatial distribution of pilot and approved NWPs from 2005 to 2019 (see Fig. 3). NWPs initially appeared in eastern China in 2005, then generally extended to the central and north-eastern regions by 2009, and, subsequently, to the southern and north-western regions from 2013 to 2019. Spatially, the hot spots for NWPs are concentrated in eastern and central China, specifically in eastern Hubei, northern Human, southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang, followed by southern Shandong and the central Shaanxi plain. These regions are characterised by abundant rivers and lakes, high population density, and advanced economies.

Fig. 3.

The growth and distribution of NWPs in China. Data on NWPs were extracted from the statistics in State Forestry Administration published on Wetland China (see www.shidi.org), and analysed using GIS techniques.

Conversely, coastal regions, the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and Qinghai–Tibet Plateau exhibit limited numbers of NWP. These findings align with the conclusions drawn by Guo et al. (2019) and Zhou T et al. (2019), who conducted kernel-density analyses, indicating an unbalanced spatial distribution of NWPs across China. The above mentioned areas typically feature extensive watersheds, eco-fragile environments and are designated as national key ecological function zones that are crucial for national or larger regional ecological security and require restrictions on large-scale, high-intensity industrial and urban development. The number of NWPs in these areas is limited, likely owing to stringent ecological protection requirements and restrictions. Future development of NWPs in these regions will need to carefully balance ecological protection with resource development, ensuring the preservation of their vital ecological functions.

Wetland destruction as a driver for the development of NWPs

Wetlands in China have suffered from serious loss and degradation as a result of rapid population growth and economic development, leading to contamination, reclamation, construction-related land occupation, overfishing and over-harvesting, and invasion of alien species (State Forestry Administration 2014). Over the past 50 years, China has lost 23% of freshwater marshes, 16% of lakes, 15% of rivers and 57% coastal wetlands (Gong et al. 2010; Meng et al. 2017). Inland wetlands decreased at an average annual reduction rate of 6666 km² from 1978 to 1990 (Niu et al. 2012; Meng et al. 2017). From 1990 to 2000, natural coastal wetland saw a 16% reduction, (Gong et al. 2010) and from 2003 to 2013, a 23% decrease was recorded (State Forestry Administration 2014). The second National Wetland Census reported a decline of 33,762 km² in natural wetlands from 2003 to 2013 and the rate of decline reached 9.33%. The area of wetland under threat of degradation increased from 1000 km² to 13,000 km² (State Forestry Administration 2014). This loss directly diminishes China’s ecosystem services. As estimated by An et al. (2007), the large-scale destruction of wetlands could lead to an annual loss of ecosystem services of US$1.57 × 10⁹ (equivalent to CN¥10 × 10⁹).

Through their analysis of wetland reserve and park distribution in China, Fu et al. (2015) observed that most wetland reserves are concentrated in the north-eastern, south-eastern and south-western regions, whereas NWPs are predominantly located in the northern and central areas. Despite varying levels of protection, NWPs have, to some extent, filled the spatial gaps in wetland protection areas by incorporating wetlands from the northern and central regions into the PA system.

The demand of outdoor recreation

The reform of the Chinese holiday system with the introduction of ‘Golden Week’ and three traditional festivals since 1999 has substantially encouraged millions of Chinese to seek outdoor recreation (Shen et al. 2018). As one of the early developed vacation venues, National Forestry Parks illustrate the flourishing of nature tourism, with visitors increasing 18-fold, from ~90 million in 2002 to 1.6 billion in 2018. Concurrently, the revenue generated from this have increased simultaneously, from US$2.42 × 10⁹ in 2002 to $214.29 × 10⁹ in 2018 (China National Tourism Administration 2019).

With the premise of maintaining the integrity of the wetland ecosystem being a critical part of their management, NWPs provide opportunities for popular recreational activities such as hiking, boating and bird-watching. By facilitating public access to wetlands, these parks utilise natural resources as tourist attractions, providing visitors with both environmental immersion and relaxation opportunities. Thus, NWPs emerge as focal points for attracting tourists, particularly urban residents seeking respite from city life. Moreover, the revenue generated from recreational activities can partially fulfil the funding needs of these parks (Wang G et al. 2012).

Additionally, local government view the construction of NWPs as a strategic economic development initiative that boosts revenue, creates job opportunities and increases property prices. For example, Nanjing Qinhuai River Wetland Park has contributed between 1.69 and 3.03% economic growth to the regional economy, providing ~3900–7400 jobs and generating a net benefit of US$122 × 10⁶ (¥780 × 10⁶) (Luo and Dong 2006). This underscores the economic incentives driving local governments to invest in wetland parks.

The progress of legislation and policies as a facilitator

Laws and policies have acted as a facilitator for the development of NWPs in China. They have not only encouraged and guided the construction of NWPs through preferential support but also ensured rigorous monitoring and management, establishing standardised legal norm. This marked a significant shift from earlier times when certain wetlands, such as swamps, tidal flats and flood plains, were classified as ‘wasteland’ and vulnerable to reclaiming. Since the 1970s, the Chinese government has increasingly recognised the ecological importance of wetlands and implemented a series of protection policies and management plans, with NWPs identified as one of the wetland conservation initiatives. Consequently, regulations, local statutes and professional standards for NWPs have been progressively enhanced, offering practical guidance for their establishment, promotion, designation, zoning, supervision and evaluation. Table 2 enumerates key guidance documents pertaining to NWPs, encompassing national policies, plans, local statutes and professional standards.

As illustrated by the documents in Table 2, the legal framework for NWPs in China has steadily evolved. By the end of 2019, 25 provinces or autonomous regions, 13 cities and 1 county had implemented local wetland conservation statutes, with 13 provinces or autonomous regions having established local wetland park management statutes. The period from 2006 to 2015 witnessed a notable increase in regulatory framework, highlighting a positive correlation between legislative support and the proliferation of NWPs.

Protect typical resources and habitats

As a protected category of wetlands, NWPs played essential roles in conserving wetland habitats and safeguarding vital resources. NWPs cover a total area of 36,174.51 km², representing 6.75% of China’s total wetland areas (see Table 3). The majority of NWPs (84.85%) are located along rivers and lakes, which collectively account for 16.03% of China’s rivers and lakes area. NWPs located in or adjacent to swamps contributed 27.19% of China’s swamps area, thereby contributing significantly to the carbon-storage capacity of Chinese wetlands. For example, Zoige NWP on the Tibetan Plateau exhibits an average wetland carbon storage of 97.649 kg m⁻², surpassing forestry-soil carbon storage by five times and grassland-soil carbon storage by eleven times (Zhou WC et al. 2016).

Our calculations showed that 37.1% of the established NWPs are less than 10 km² in size, with 6% being smaller than 3 km². Contrary to traditional preferences for large PAs, recent studies (e.g. Riva and Fahrig 2022; Pulido-Chadid et al. 2023; Dudley et al. 2024) have indicated that small PAs, if effectively managed and designed, play a significant role in conserving critical habitats and endangered species, particularly in regions heavily altered by human activities.

Furthermore, wetland reserves are typically located in remote regions with sparse human populations, whereas NWPs are predominantly found in or near urban centres susceptible to urbanisation and human disturbance (Zhou T et al. 2019). Thus, the construction of NWPs and their associated management practices, such as pollution control, invasive species management and habitat restoration, have effectively contributed to the conservation of valuable urban wetlands, complementing the role of wetland reserves (Wu et al. 2016a). In addition, wetland parks are crucial components of urban ecological corridors, providing habitats, especially for water birds and amphibians. For instance, Beijing, housing 515 bird species, ranks second among capital cities of G20 countries in avian diversity. Yeyahu National Wetland Park, Beijing’s only NWP, supports 369 bird species, which constitute 71.10% of the city’s bird diversity (An 2024).

Promoting wise use of wetland resources

The concept of ‘wise use’ was widely adopted internationally to guide the sustainable development of wetlands with the purpose of maintaining their ecological character (Farrier and Tucker 2000; Finlayson et al. 2005, 2011). This principle is also central to NWPs, distinguishing them from wetland reserves that prioritise strict protection (as illustrated in Fig. 1). NWPs aim to reconcile conservation goals with resource utilisation, thereby enhancing conservation effectiveness. For instance, Xixi National Wetland Park, the first-established NWP, has established itself as a local brand by providing a favourable eco-environment, profound cultural connotation and abundant outdoor activities. This has stimulated rapid growth in surrounding tourism, real estate and modern service industry (Liao 2009). According to the management authority of the Xixi Wetland, since its opening in 2005 until 2024, the park has welcomed 60 million visitors, creating nearly 5000 jobs, with ~70% being filled by local residents. The cumulative revenue has reached ¥2.6 × 10⁹, significantly promoting sustainable economic and social development in the region and serving as a notable model and catalyst for local growth (Fang 2024).

Popularising environmental education

Public science education is one of the essential functions of NWPs. The assessment standard for NWPs (refer to Table 2) explicitly includes the value of science education and the presence of educational facilities as an evaluation criterion (Cui et al. 2008). Through visits to wetlands and participation in activities at wetland education centres, individuals gain exposure to wetland flora and fauna, develop an understanding of the importance of wetland ecosystems, and cultivate environmental awareness (Chen et al. 2015). Further, education programs at wetland parks equip people with the knowledge needed to make informed decisions about their local environments and help deliver wetland conservation and wise use efforts.

For instance, although not categorised as a NWP, Hong Kong Wetland Park exemplifies benefits of engaging local student volunteers in environmentally friendly activities and creating informative and transformative interpretation for other visitors (Shen and Redclift 2012). Even though these are hands-on education initiatives, the volunteers and tourists have the potential to be remoulded and shaped to become eco-tourists, responsible travellers, and environmentally or socially conscious citizens (Luo and Deng 2008).

Strengthen heritage conservation

Many human civilisations have thrived in proximity to wetlands, such as rivers and lakes. Consequently, numerous wetland parks have incorporated wetland cultures into their construction and operation, serving as repositories of historical and cultural significance (Zhang MY et al. 2011; Yu 2013). For example, the Qi River, prominently featured in the ‘Book of Songs’, China’s earliest poetry collection, holds significant cultural value. Located along the Qi River, Henan Hebi Qi River NWP integrates elements from the ‘Book of Songs’ and the Five Elements theory into its landscape design. The park features distinct attractions corresponding to the Five Elements, such as ‘Metal Brilliance’, ‘Wood Forest’, ‘Water Source’, ‘Fire Stone’ and ‘Earth Hill’. Furthermore, drawing from the 39 poems in the ‘Book of Songs’ that describe the Qi River, nine islands within the science education and recreation area of the park are named after these poems. Each island is landscaped with unique plant arrangements that recreate the essence of ‘The Nine Regions of the Book of Songs’ (Wei X et al. 2020). Through this culturally infused design approach, Hebi Qi River National Wetland Park not only preserves Chinese cultural heritage, but also accentuates its own distinctive identity.

Conservation overlaps owing to unreasonable spatial layout

Although there is a recognised need to expand PAs to address conservation gaps, existing PAs often exhibit spatial overlaps and intersecting boundaries. Another issue is the clustering of conservation areas in close proximity to each other. Zhu et al. (2017) investigated 3093 national PAs, including NWPs, and found that the overlap within 5 km of the buffer zone was 16.3%, increasing to 25.0% within 10 km and 42.1% within 20 km. Ma et al. (2019) analysed administrative regions and boundaries of 898 NWPs and identified spatial overlaps with other types of PAs in 164 instances. For example, Shennongjia in Hubei province, a flagship protected area, encompasses a national natural reserve, a national forestry park, a national geopark and a NWP, all with significant overlaps. Similarly, Sanjingyuan National Park, located at the source of the Yangtze River, Yellow River and Lancang River, includes a national nature reserve, internationally and nationally important wetlands, a national aquatic germplasm resource reserve, and a water scenic area (Qiao et al. 2018).

This kind of overlap not only leads to a waste of resources because each protected area has its own office and supporting facilities, but also leads to fragmented management by the creation of multiple administrative arrangements. In addition, the ambiguity of jurisdiction can disrupt the integrity of wetland ecosystems and reduce their efficiency (Zhang L et al. 2019). Therefore, there is an urgent call for a comprehensive and integrated conservation approach to mitigate spatial conflicts and interdepartmental complexities, as discussed below.

Ecosystem disruption resulting from excessive construction, non-ecological measures or large numbers of tourists

One of the primary objectives of NWPs is to conserve biodiversity and maintain ecosystem integrity. However, hasty and careless development of NWPs can sometimes cause secondary damage to natural landscapes. Although the ‘Management Measures for NWPs’ clearly outlines zoning requirements, that is, designating conservation, restoration and rational utilisation zones, and restricts construction to the latter two zones, it lacks specific guidelines on construction practices and limits on development scope. Many NWPs undergo extensive construction of buildings, roads, trails, water and communication infrastructure, and power systems (Wang G et al. 2012). Excessive development of facilities such as hotels, restaurants, shops and resorts aimed at attracting tourists exacerbates these issues. For instance, homogeneity in architectural style and excessive tourist infrastructure development in Zhejiang’s NWPs have been observed, detracting from the wetlands’ natural beauty and ecological value (Lin et al. 2022).

Furthermore, the absence of ecological, zoological and botanical expertise during design and construction has led to non-ecologically sensitive practices in NWPs. These include the construction of hydraulic structures such as concrete channels, dams and embankments that disrupt natural wetland succession. Introducing exotic invasive species such as Rhus typhina, Eichhornia crassipes or Alternanthera philoxeroides for landscaping purposes, and domesticating wild animals or feeding migrating birds for tourist entertainment, under the guise of ecological restoration, further disturb wetland ecosystem balance and hinder the sustainable development and wise use of NWPs (Wang LL et al. 2010).

Tourist overcrowding poses another significant challenge, increasing the risk of ecosystem degradation. Overcapacity is particularly evident in NWPs with a high visibility and advantageous locations (Pan and Sun 2015). For example, the tourism environment of Xixi NWP is designed to accommodate 4145–6450 visitors daily (Li and Rong 2007); yet, during peak holidays such as International Labour Day and National Day, the park attracts nearly 30,000 tourists per day. Similarly, Dianchi Laoyu River NWP, with a daily capacity of 6975 visitors, sees over 13,000 visitors daily during the Spring Festival (Yang 2022). Large crowds during peak seasons can lead to resource depletion, soil and vegetation damage, water pollution, littering and environmental degradation in the surrounding areas (Zhang Y et al. 2017; Li X et al. 2018).

Potential conflicts with local communities owing to environmental relocation

Many Chinese PAs, including NWPs, have been established in areas inhabited by local communities. According to a 2019 survey by the State Forestry Administration, 3.74 million residents are living within the 461 surveyed PAs, including NWPs. Among them, nearly 400,000 reside in core or conservation zones, who will be gradually relocated, as required by the laws and regulations. Environmental relocation within NWPs is often implemented to mitigate human impact on sensitive ecosystems and to enhance ecological restoration efforts. For example, in Ganjiangyuan NWP, relocation of residents has been pivotal in restoring and safeguarding wetland environments (Zhou Y et al. 2023). Similarly, over 1800 residents were relocated in Dajiuhu NWP to reduce human disturbances and to bolster conservation efforts (Liu Y 2022).

However, previous research has highlighted adverse consequence experienced by relocated communities, including landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, food insecurity, loss of access to common property resources and social disarticulation (Cernea 1997; Lei et al. 2017). As a result of inadequate follow-up support and management, many relocated residents have returned to their original homes within PAs, causing further disturbance to the protected ecosystems and increasing unsustainability of the community (Tan et al. 2016). These socioeconomic risks underscore the need for comprehensive planning and support for affected communities, so as to ensure successful and sustainable environmental relocations within NWPs.

Integrating with the national park-orientated protected area system

The ‘Guidelines’ classify China’s natural PAs into the following three categories based on ecological value and protection intensity: national parks, nature reserves and nature parks. This classification aims to organise existing PAs into a system where national parks serve as the main component, nature reserves provide the foundation, and various nature parks act as supplements. Wetland parks are clearly categorised as nature parks, which facilitates their inclusion within the broader framework of the national park-oriented system (Cui 2023). Furthermore, the National Park Administration is also affiliated with the NFGA, as is that for NWPs. Sharing a common higher-level authority should reduce functional overlap or conflict, with better-aligned goals and responsibilities.

In the process of optimising and adjusting current PAs, the NWPs that overlap, cross or intersect, or border proposed national parks, will either be repealed or merged. This step requires careful execution to avoid reducing overall protection coverage, which can be partly achieved by retaining the core zones of integrated PAs (Tang et al. 2020). This action is expected to solve the issues stemming from dual designations. By contrast, NWPs located outside the proposed national parks boundaries should be retained to fill conservation gaps. Continued efforts are essential to expand the number of PAs, define boundaries, allocate resources effectively across different protected-area types and facilitate comprehensive spatial planning from a top-down approach.

Improving current management schemes for NWPs

NWPs should prioritise enhancing their management frameworks. The shift from a nomination to a promotion system under the ‘National Wetland Park Regulation’ has contributed to a slowdown in new park designations. It has facilitated a slow-down in the acceptance of new parks, which can be seen from the steady curve of NWP numbers since 2017, with more emphasis on upgrading the quality of the existing parks. Additional policies related to monitoring, inspection, adaptive management and exit procedures need further development to clarify the systems required to achieve these goals.

Future NWPs are envisioned as complementary to nation parks, aiming to fill gaps and augment their function. Unlike extensive, concentrated national parks, NWPs are typically smaller, scattered and adjacent to urban areas. Thus, NWPs can fulfil their role in providing urban green ecological space for recreation and relaxation. Future ecotourism strategies for NWPs should highlight their distinctive features of wetland ecosystems, distinguishing them from other types of nature parks. Additional tools, such as visitor number restrictions, seasonal limitations and controlled-access locations, can aid NWPs in achieving their goals of sustainability.

Once pilot NWPs are approved, the focus should shift from construction and infrastructure to subsequent management and maintenance, because these are crucial for sustainable development (Wu et al. 2015). Conducting a comprehensive management effectiveness evaluation is essential to clarify management responsibility, identify the administrative gaps and threats, and to provide recommendations for improvement. In China, natural reserves have innovatively incorporated forest certification into their management-effectiveness evaluation system to enhance objectivity, reliability and market recognition (Liu and Cui 2013). This approach could serve as a model for NWPs to establish a wetland certification assessment system.

Furthermore, future management of NWPs should prioritise better collaboration with local communities. First, seeking the opinions and addressing concerns of surrounding communities should be sought in the very early stage of NWP application and planning formulation, seeking for community understanding and support. Second, conducting robust benefit-sharing mechanisms, such as direct revenue sharing and indirect compensation through concessional loan, employment opportunities, technical assistance and supportive measure, can support sustainable livelihoods. If properly initiated and implemented, this participatory management approach can secure long-term sustainability of such special places.

This approach has been shown to be effective in wetland reserve management globally, including in NWPs in China (Chen et al. 2015; Wang and Li 2016; Wu et al. 2016b), although it requires ongoing refinement. In most cases, local communities hold the key to the successful NWP management in a manner that is much more effective than is imposing an outside approach. That way, there develops an ownership, belongingness and true partnership among people, their representatives (government) and nature.

Looking beyond community-based ecotourism, Xie (2016) introduced a benefit-sharing mode named ‘protected area-friendly system’ (PAFS). PAFS promotes the development of environmentally friendly and healthy agricultural and sideline products, as well as tourist products, produced in the neighbourhood of PAs. By adding conservation cost into these products, PAFS channels a portion of the benefits back to the community to support conservation activities. This system has been applied in several protected areas and could be extended to NWPs.

Moreover, it is also important to strengthen nature education for local people to encourage them to participate in conservation practices. For example, Taiwan Guandu Nature Park employed local villagers to educate visitors about traditional agricultural practices, such as spring ploughing and autumn harvest of rice (Li W et al. 2018). These practices not only offer unique and engaging education material, but also involve local villagers in the protection and education process of the wetlands.