The influence of fuel moisture content on the combustion of Eucalyptus foliage
Malcolm Possell A B C and Tina L. Bell A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
B Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, 340 Albert Street, East Melbourne, Vic. 3002, Australia.
C Corresponding author: Email: malcolm.possell@sydney.edu.au
International Journal of Wildland Fire 22(3) 343-352 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF12077
Submitted: 17 May 2012 Accepted: 21 August 2012 Published: 11 October 2012
Abstract
Leaves from three species of Eucalyptus were combusted in a mass-loss calorimeter to characterise the effect of fuel moisture on energy release and combustion products for this genus. Increasing moisture content reduced peak heat release and the effective heat of combustion in a negative exponential pattern while simultaneously increasing time-to-ignition. Estimates of the probability of ignition, based upon time-to-ignition data, indicated that the critical fuel moisture content for a 50% probability of ignition ranged from 81 to 89% on a dry-weight basis. The modified combustion efficiency of leaves (the ratio of CO2 concentration to the sum of the CO2 and CO concentrations) decreased exponentially as fuel moisture increased. This was because CO2 concentrations during combustion declined exponentially while CO concentrations increased exponentially. However, CO2 mixing ratios were always greater by at least one order of magnitude. Emission factors for CO2 declined exponentially with increasing fuel moisture content while CO emission factors increased exponentially to a maximum. The emission factors for volatile organic compounds increased in a pattern similar to that for CO with increasing fuel moisture content. The empirical relationships identified in this study have implications for fire-behaviour modelling and assessing the effect of fire on air quality and climate.
Additional keywords: effective heat of combustion, emission factors, Eucalyptus bicostata, Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus tereticornis, heat release rate, ignition probability, time-to-ignition.
References
Akagi SK, Yokelson RJ, Wiedinmyer C, Alvarado MJ, Reid JS, Karl T, Crounse JD, Wennberg PO (2011) Emission factors for open and domestic biomass burning for use in atmospheric models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, 4039–4072.| Emission factors for open and domestic biomass burning for use in atmospheric models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtVWltrnM&md5=33d199312690bdd9f810e749481a7174CAS |
Albini FA, Reinhardt ED (1995) Modeling ignition and burning rate of large woody natural fuels. International Journal of Wildland Fire 5, 81–91.
| Modeling ignition and burning rate of large woody natural fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alexander ME (1982) Calculating and interpreting forest fire intensities. Canadian Journal of Botany 60, 349–357.
| Calculating and interpreting forest fire intensities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andreae MO, Merlet P (2001) Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15, 955–966.
| Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjtV2iuw%3D%3D&md5=0a436a132d331adca666e8fdf05d466bCAS |
Babrauskas V (2006) Effective heat of combustion for flaming combustion of conifers. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 659–663.
| Effective heat of combustion for flaming combustion of conifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman D, Wilson BA (1988) Fuel characteristics of coastal monsoon forests, Northern Territory, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 15, 807–817.
| Fuel characteristics of coastal monsoon forests, Northern Territory, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byram GM (1959) Combustion of forest fuels. In ‘Forest Fire: Control and Use’. (Ed. KP Davies) pp. 61–89. (McGraw Hill: New York)
Cary GJ (2002) Importance of a changing climate for fire regimes in Australia. In ‘Flammable Australia: The Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent’. (Eds AM Gill, RA Bradstock, RJ Williams) pp. 26–49. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Christian TJ, Kleiss B, Yokelson RJ, Holzinger R, Crutzen PJ, Hao WM, Shirai T, Blake DR (2004) Comprehensive laboratory measurements of biomass-burning emissions: 2. First intercomparison of open-path FTIR, PTR-MS, and GC- MS/FID/ECD. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 109, D02311
| Comprehensive laboratory measurements of biomass-burning emissions: 2. First intercomparison of open-path FTIR, PTR-MS, and GC- MS/FID/ECD.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chuvieco E, Aguado I, Dimitrakopoulos AP (2004) Conversion of fuel moisture content values to ignition potential for integrated fire danger assessment. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 2284–2293.
| Conversion of fuel moisture content values to ignition potential for integrated fire danger assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Davies GM, Legg CJ (2011) Fuel moisture thresholds in the flammability of Calluna vulgaris. Fire Technology 47, 421–436.
| Fuel moisture thresholds in the flammability of Calluna vulgaris.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dickinson KJM, Kirkpatrick JB (1985) The flammability and energy content of some important plant-species and fuel components in the forests of southeastern Tasmania. Journal of Biogeography 12, 121–134.
| The flammability and energy content of some important plant-species and fuel components in the forests of southeastern Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dimitrakopoulos AP, Papaioannou KK (2001) Flammability assessment of Mediterranean forest fuels. Fire Technology 37, 143–152.
| Flammability assessment of Mediterranean forest fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dimitrakopoulos AP, Mitsopoulos ID, Gatoulas K (2010) Assessing ignition probability and moisture of extinction in a Mediterranean grass fuel. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 29–34.
| Assessing ignition probability and moisture of extinction in a Mediterranean grass fuel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Etlinger MG, Beall FC (2004) Development of a laboratory protocol for fire performance of landscape plants. International Journal of Wildland Fire 13, 479–488.
| Development of a laboratory protocol for fire performance of landscape plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fletcher TH, Pickett BM, Smith SG, Spittle GS, Woodhouse MM, Haake E, Weise DR (2007) Effects of moisture on ignition behavior of moist California chaparral and Utah leaves. Combustion Science and Technology 179, 1183–1203.
| Effects of moisture on ignition behavior of moist California chaparral and Utah leaves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXltF2ntLo%3D&md5=c29c4d41ca31e3315210c184343825efCAS |
Gillon D, Hernando C, Valette JC, Joffre R (1997) Fast estimation of the calorific values of forest fuels by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27, 760–765.
| Fast estimation of the calorific values of forest fuels by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hao WM, Ward DE (1993) Methane production from global biomass burning. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 98, 20 657–20 661.
| Methane production from global biomass burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hurst DF, Griffith DWT, Carras JN, Williams DJ, Fraser PJ (1994a) Measurements of trace gases emitted by Australian savanna fires during the 1990 dry season. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 18, 33–56.
| Measurements of trace gases emitted by Australian savanna fires during the 1990 dry season.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXislyltb0%3D&md5=3133551a899bd55531486ddeb8f8e379CAS |
Hurst DF, Griffith DWT, Cook GD (1994b) Trace gas emissions from biomass burning in tropical Australian savannas. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 99, 16 441–16 456.
| Trace gas emissions from biomass burning in tropical Australian savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXms1ahsbs%3D&md5=cc5ba9035fcd17708917aff87121b6c6CAS |
Hurst DF, Griffith DWT, Cook GD (1996) Trace gas emission from biomass burning in Australia. In ‘Biomass Burning and Global Change’ (Ed. JS Levine) pp. 787–794. (The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
ISO (2001) Simple heat release test using a conical radiant heater and a thermopile detector. International Organisation for Standardisation, ISO 13927. (Geneva)
Ito A, Penner JE (2004) Global estimates of biomass burning emissions based on satellite imagery for the year 2000. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 109, D14S05
| Global estimates of biomass burning emissions based on satellite imagery for the year 2000.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leonard S (2009) Predicting sustained fire spread in Tasmanian native grasslands. Environmental Management 44, 430–440.
| Predicting sustained fire spread in Tasmanian native grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lobert JM, Warnatz J (1993) Emissions from the combustion process in vegetation. In ‘Fire and the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires’. (Eds PJ Crutzen, JG Goldammer) pp. 15–37. (Wiley: New York)
Macias Fauria M, Michaletz ST, Johnson EA (2011) Predicting climate change effects on wildfires requires linking processes across scales. WIREs Climate Change 2, 99–112.
| Predicting climate change effects on wildfires requires linking processes across scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Madrigal J, Hernando C, Guijarro M, Diez C, Marino E, De Castro AJ (2009) Evaluation of forest fuel flammability and combustion properties with an adapted mass loss calorimeter device. Journal of Fire Sciences 27, 323–342.
| Evaluation of forest fuel flammability and combustion properties with an adapted mass loss calorimeter device.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Madrigal J, Guijarro M, Hernando C, Diez C, Marino E (2011) Effective heat of combustion for flaming combustion of Mediterranean forest fuels. Fire Technology 47, 461–474.
| Effective heat of combustion for flaming combustion of Mediterranean forest fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matthews S, Gould J, Mccaw L (2010) Simple models for predicting dead fuel moisture in eucalyptus forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 459–467.
| Simple models for predicting dead fuel moisture in eucalyptus forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Misztal PK, Nemitz E, Langford B, Di Marco CF, Phillips GJ, Hewitt CN, MacKenzie AR, Owen SM, Fowler D, Heal MR, Cape JN (2011) Direct ecosystem fluxes of volatile organic compounds from oil palms in South-East Asia. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, 8995–9017.
| Direct ecosystem fluxes of volatile organic compounds from oil palms in South-East Asia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVyju7bF&md5=ed07440e54e0bdfd92b978c01b8e2b0fCAS |
NEPC (2004) National Environment Protection (Air Toxics) Measure. National Environment Protection Council. (Canberra)
NEPC (2006) National Environment Protection (Air Toxics) Tier 2 Prioritisation Methodology. National Environment Protection Council. (Canberra)
Paton-Walsh C, Jones N, Wilson S, Meier A, Deutscher N, Griffith D, Mitchell R, Campbell S (2004) Trace gas emissions from biomass burning inferred from aerosol optical depth. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L05116
| Trace gas emissions from biomass burning inferred from aerosol optical depth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paton-Walsh C, Deutscher NM, Griffith DWT, Forgan BW, Wilson SR, Jones NB, Edwards DP (2010) Trace gas emissions from savanna fires in northern Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 115, D16314
| Trace gas emissions from savanna fires in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Russell-Smith J, Murphy BP, Meyer CP, Cooka GD, Maier S, Edwards AC, Schatz J, Brocklehurst P (2009) Improving estimates of savanna burning emissions for greenhouse accounting in northern Australia: limitations, challenges, applications. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 1–18.
| Improving estimates of savanna burning emissions for greenhouse accounting in northern Australia: limitations, challenges, applications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhvFaqs74%3D&md5=fd28a70ce223b05eb8bb218b2736d3beCAS |
Schemel CF, Simeoni A, Biteau H, Rivera JD, Torero JL (2008) A calorimetric study of wildland fuels. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 32, 1381–1389.
| A calorimetric study of wildland fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXotF2rsrs%3D&md5=1fd0e1d643125026a7eb1eab8adecfa8CAS |
Shirai T, Blake DR, Meinardi S, Rowland FS, Russell-Smith J, Edwards A, Kondo Y, Koike M, Kita K, Machida T, Takegawa N, Nishi N, Kawakami S, Ogawa T (2003) Emission estimates of selected volatile organic compounds from tropical savanna burning in northern Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres 108, 8406
| Emission estimates of selected volatile organic compounds from tropical savanna burning in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Singh RP (1980) Energy dynamics in Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith plantations in western Uttar Pradesh. Indian Forester 106, 649–658.
Susott RA (1982) Characterization of the thermal-properties of forest fuels by combustible gas-analysis. Forest Science 28, 404–420.
Taipale R, Ruuskanen TM, Rinne J, Kajos MK, Hakola H, Pohja T, Kulmala M (2008) Technical Note: Quantitative long-term measurements of VOC concentrations by PTR-MS – measurement, calibration, and volume mixing ratio calculation methods. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 8, 6681–6698.
| Technical Note: Quantitative long-term measurements of VOC concentrations by PTR-MS – measurement, calibration, and volume mixing ratio calculation methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXnvFaj&md5=0f9286dc2d41094f46e07bb04b86afbfCAS |
Trabaud L (1976) Flammability and combustibility of main species of garrigues in French Mediterranean region. Oecologia Plantarum 11, 117–136.
Urbanski SP, Hao WM, Baker S (2009) Chemical composition of wildland fire emissions. In ‘Wildland Fires and Air Pollution’. (Eds A Bytnerowicz, M. Arbaugh, A Riebau, C. Andersen) pp. 79–107. (Elsevier B.V.: Amsterdam)
Valette JC (1990) Inflammabilite des especes forestieres mediterraneennes. Consequences sur la combustibilite des formations forestieres. Revue Forestiere Francaise 42, 76–92.
| Inflammabilite des especes forestieres mediterraneennes. Consequences sur la combustibilite des formations forestieres.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1972) Heat of combustion, heat yield, and fire behaviour. Canadian Forest Service, Petawawa Forest Experiment Station, Information Report PS-X-35. (Chalk River, ON)
Van Wagner CE, Stocks BJ, Lawson BD, Alexander ME, Lynham TJ, McAlpine RS (1992) Development and structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction System. Forestry Canada Fire Danger Group Information Report ST-X-3. (Ottawa, ON)
Ward DE, Hardy CC (1991) Smoke emissions from wildland fires. Environment International 17, 117–134.
| Smoke emissions from wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXktlCltr4%3D&md5=0940f4621e28b04fd4321b10afe25d71CAS |
Ward DE, Radke LF (1993) Emission measurements from vegetation fires: a comparative evaluation of methods and results. In ‘Fire and the Environment: the Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires’. (Eds PJ Crutzen, JG Goldammer) pp. 53–76. (Wiley: New York)
Warneke C, Roberts JM, Veres P, Gilman J, Kuster WC, Burling I, Yokelson R, de Gouw JA (2011) VOC identification and inter-comparison from laboratory biomass burning using PTR-MS and PIT-MS. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 303, 6–14.
| VOC identification and inter-comparison from laboratory biomass burning using PTR-MS and PIT-MS.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXlsVWksr0%3D&md5=0952918dd8ef5af374ef9e890e54abb2CAS |
Weise DR, White RH, Beall FC, Etlinger M (2005) Use of the cone calorimeter to detect seasonal differences in selected combustion characteristics of ornamental vegetation. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, 321–338.
| Use of the cone calorimeter to detect seasonal differences in selected combustion characteristics of ornamental vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams RJ, Gill AM, Moore PHR (1998) Seasonal changes in fire behaviour in a tropical savanna in Northern Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 8, 227–239.
| Seasonal changes in fire behaviour in a tropical savanna in Northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams AAJ, Karoly DJ, Tapper N (2001) The sensitivity of Australian fire danger to climate change. Climatic Change 49, 171–191.
| The sensitivity of Australian fire danger to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXktVOht7c%3D&md5=90c735c56e66b01b329fcc5043c81906CAS |
Yang YB, Sharifi VN, Swithenbank J (2004) Effect of air flow rate and fuel moisture on the burning behaviours of biomass and simulated municipal solid wastes in packed beds. Fuel 83, 1553–1562.
| Effect of air flow rate and fuel moisture on the burning behaviours of biomass and simulated municipal solid wastes in packed beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjvFOgs7Y%3D&md5=caa3ca235ba5384ce7b0cd9b8fb18e01CAS |
Young E, Paton-Walsh C (2011) Emission ratios of the tropospheric ozone precursors nitrogen dioxide and formaldehyde from Australia’s Black Saturday fires. Atmosphere (Toronto) 2, 617–632.
| Emission ratios of the tropospheric ozone precursors nitrogen dioxide and formaldehyde from Australia’s Black Saturday fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsFGjsrzE&md5=c97930e8f85ecdc13f034c308193dd6cCAS |
