A critical review of fuel accumulation models used in Australian fire management
Hilyati H. Zazali A B , Isaac N. Towers A B and Jason J. Sharples A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Science, University of New South Wales, UNSW Canberra, Australia.
B Corresponding authors. Email: hh.zazali@gmail.com; i.towers@adfa.edu.au; j.sharples@adfa.edu.au
International Journal of Wildland Fire 30(1) 42-56 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF20031
Submitted: 17 June 2019 Accepted: 17 September 2020 Published: 28 October 2020
Abstract
Various classifications of fuel accumulation models are used to describe the complex temporal relationship between fuel loads and vegetation dynamics. Fuel accumulation models are an important tool in wildfire management as fuel is the only component that can be directly controlled by fire managers. Here we discuss various strengths and limitations of analytical fuel accumulation models that exist in the literature, with a focus on those used in Australia. Early approaches to analytical or continuous models of fuel accumulation centred around the model introduced by Olson in 1963. This model assumes that the rate at which fuel accumulates is determined as a balance between the rate of fuel accession and the rate at which it decays. The Olson model has been shown to provide a reasonable description of litter accumulation, data sparsity issues notwithstanding, but can be of limited use in describing elevated fuels, or in forest stands that exhibit more complex post-disturbance dynamics. Interactions between species and other disturbances have the potential to change the dynamics of fuel accumulation and decay processes. Moreover, post-fire vegetation stands are usually dominated by an understorey layer that eventually senesces as the dominant vegetation grows. Motivated by the critical differences between the models presented, a more general approach featuring vegetation density is proposed. A generic result is presented to indicate how the theoretical predictions of the model are able to emulate patterns of fuel accumulation that have been reported, and that can not be accounted for by the models commonly used in Australia.
Keywords: fuel accumulation models, mathematical modelling, Olson model, senescence, vegetation-density model.
References
AFAC (2015) Overview of prescribed burning in Australasia. Report for the National Burning Project Subproject 1. Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council Limited, Melbourne.Altangerel K, Kull CA (2013) The prescribed burning debate in Australia: conflicts and compatibilities. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 56, 103–120.
| The prescribed burning debate in Australia: conflicts and compatibilities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson DH, Catchpole EA, De Mestre NJ, Parkes T (1982) Modelling the spread of grass fires. Journal of the Australian Mathematical Society. Series B. Applied Mathematics 23, 451–466.
| Modelling the spread of grass fires. Journal of the Australian Mathematical Society.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andrews P, Bevins C, Seli R (2005) BehavePlus fire modeling system, version 4.0: Users Guide. General Technical Report. RMRS-GTR-106 Revised. Ogden, UT: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 116p. Available at https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr106.pdf [verified 29 September 2020]
Arianoutsou-Faraggitaki M, Margaris NS (1982) Decomposers and the fire cycle in a phryganic (East Mediterranean) ecosystem. Microbial Ecology 8, 91–98.
| Decomposers and the fire cycle in a phryganic (East Mediterranean) ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24225702PubMed |
Atkinson D, Chladil M, Janssen VR, Lucieer A (2010) Implementation of quantitative bushfire risk analysis in a GIS environment. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 649–658.
| Implementation of quantitative bushfire risk analysis in a GIS environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Banks RB (1994) Some basic framework. In ‘Growth and diffusion phenomena: Mathematical frameworks and applications’. pp. 5–147. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Beighley M, Bishop J (1990) Fire behavior in high-elevation timber. Fire Management Notes 51, pp. 23–28. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Birk EM, Simpson RW (1980) Steady state and the continuous input model of litter accumulation and decomposition in Australian eucalypt forests. Ecology 61, 481–485.
| Steady state and the continuous input model of litter accumulation and decomposition in Australian eucalypt forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Botequim B, Zubizarreta-Gerendiain A, Garcia-Gonzalo J, Silva A, Marques S, Fernandes PM, Pereira JMC, Tome M (2015) A model of shrub biomass accumulation as a tool to support management of Portuguese forests. iForest-Biogeosciences and Forestry 8, 114–125.
| A model of shrub biomass accumulation as a tool to support management of Portuguese forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bresnehan SJ (1998) An assessment of fuel characteristics and fuel loads in dry sclerophyll forests in south-east Tasmania. Tasmanian Forest Research Council, Hobart, Tas.
Bresnehan SJ (2003) An assessment of fuel characteristics and fuel loads in the dry sclerophyll forests of south-east Tasmania. PhD thesis. University of Tasmania.
Bunnell FL, Tait DEN (1974) Mathematical simulation models of decomposition processes. In ‘Soil organisms and decomposition in tundra’. (Eds AJ Holding, OW Heal, SF MacLean Jr, PW Flanagan) pp. 207–225. Tundra Biome Steering Committee, Stockholm, Sweden.
Byram GM (1959) Forest fire behaviour. In ‘Forest fire, control and use’. (Ed. KP Davis) pp. 23–123. (McGraw-Hill: New York)
Byram GM, Clements HB, Bishop ME, Nelson RM Jr (1966) Final report PROJECT FIRE MODEL: an explanatory study of model fires. Office of Civil Defense Contract OCD-PS-6540. USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. (Asheville, NC).
Carpenter SR (1981) Decay of heterogenous detritus: a general model. Journal of Theoretical Biology 89, 539–547.
| Decay of heterogenous detritus: a general model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cary G, Golding C (2002) Fuel modelling for fire management. A review for the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. The Australian National University, Canberra.
Cheney NP, Gould JS, McCaw WL, Anderson WR (2012) Predicting fire behaviour in dry eucalypt forest in southern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 280, 120–131.
| Predicting fire behaviour in dry eucalypt forest in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cook GD (2003) Fuel dynamics, nutrients, and atmospheric chemistry. In ‘Fire in Tropical Savannas. Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis)’, vol 169. (Eds AN Andersen, GD Cook, RJ Williams) pp. 47–58. (Springer, New York, NY)
Cook GD, Meyer CPM (2017) Seasonal variation in fine fuel accumulation in savannas. Technical Report. CSIRO, Australia.
Cook GD, Muepu M, Liedloff AC (2016) Dead organic matter and the dynamics of carbon and greenhouse gas emissions in frequently burnt savannas. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 1252–1263.
| Dead organic matter and the dynamics of carbon and greenhouse gas emissions in frequently burnt savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coop JD, Parks SA, McClernan SR, Holsinger LM (2016) Influences of prior wildfires on vegetation response to subsequent fire in a reburned Southwestern land- scape. Ecological Applications 26, 346–354.
| Influences of prior wildfires on vegetation response to subsequent fire in a reburned Southwestern land- scape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27209778PubMed |
Cornelissen JHC, Grootemaat S, Verheijen LM, Cornwell WK, van Bodegom PM, van der Wal R, Aerts R (2017) Are litter decomposition and fire linked through plant species traits?. New Phytologist 216, 653–669.
| Are litter decomposition and fire linked through plant species traits?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28892160PubMed |
Croft P, Hunter JT, Reid N (2016) Forgotten fauna: habitat attributes of long-unburnt open forests and woodlands dictate a rethink of fire management theory and practice. Forest Ecology and Management 366, 166–174.
| Forgotten fauna: habitat attributes of long-unburnt open forests and woodlands dictate a rethink of fire management theory and practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cruz M, Alexander M, Wakimoto R (2003) Assessing canopy fuel stratum characteristics in crown fire prone fuel types of western North America. International Journal of Wildland Fire 12, 39–50.
| Assessing canopy fuel stratum characteristics in crown fire prone fuel types of western North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dixon KM, Cary GJ, Worboys GL, Seddon J, Gibbons P (2018) A comparison of fuel hazard in recently burned and long-unburned forests and woodlands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 609–622.
| A comparison of fuel hazard in recently burned and long-unburned forests and woodlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duff TJ, Keane RE, Penman TD, Tolhurst KG (2017) Revisiting wildland fire fuel quantification methods: the challenge of understanding a dynamic, biotic entity. Forests 8, 351
| Revisiting wildland fire fuel quantification methods: the challenge of understanding a dynamic, biotic entity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eskelson BNI, Monleon VJ (2018) Post-fire surface fuel dynamics in California forests across three burn severity classes. International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 114–124.
| Post-fire surface fuel dynamics in California forests across three burn severity classes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ezcurra E, Becerra J (1987) Experimental decomposition of litter from the Tamaulipan cloud forest: a comparison of four simple models. Biotropica 19, 290–296.
| Experimental decomposition of litter from the Tamaulipan cloud forest: a comparison of four simple models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fensham RJ (1992) The management implications of fine fuel dynamics in bushlands sur- rounding Hobart, Tasmania. Journal of Environmental Management 36, 301–320.
| The management implications of fine fuel dynamics in bushlands sur- rounding Hobart, Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fernandes P (2009) Combining forest structure data and fuel modelling to classify fire hazard in Portugal. Annals of Forest Science 66, 415
| Combining forest structure data and fuel modelling to classify fire hazard in Portugal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA (2004) FARSITE: Fire Area Simulator Model Development and Evaluation. Research Paper RMRS-RP-4 Revised 2004. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Fire Prediction Services (2019) PHOENIX RapidFire: Technical Reference Guide. A Technical Guide to the PHOENIX RapidFire Bushfire Characterisation Model Version 4.1. Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council (Melbourne: Victoria).
Fox BJ, Fox MD, McKay GM (1979) Litter accumulation after fire in a eucalypt forest. Australian Journal of Botany 27, 157–165.
| Litter accumulation after fire in a eucalypt forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frantz J (2010) G3data, Version 1.5.2. The software has been abandoned by its original author and a more recent version can be found at https://github.com/whit2333/g3data/.
French IA, Cechet RP, Yang T, Sanabria LA (2013) FireDST: Fire Impact and Risk Evaluation Decision Support Tool Model Description. In ‘20th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM 2013)’ 1–6 December 2013, Adelaide, Australia. (Eds J Piantadosi, RS Anderssen, J Boland). pp. 173–179. https://doi.org/10.36334/modsim.2013.A3.french
Fry D, Stevens J, Potter A, Collins B, Stephens S (2018) Surface fuel accumulation and decomposition in old-growth pine-mixed conifer forests, northwestern Mexico. Fire. Ecology 14, 6
| Surface fuel accumulation and decomposition in old-growth pine-mixed conifer forests, northwestern Mexico. Fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fule PZ, Cocke AE, Heinlein TA, Covington WW (2004) Effects of an intense prescribed forest fire: is it ecological restoration?. Restoration Ecology 12, 220–230.
| Effects of an intense prescribed forest fire: is it ecological restoration?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fuller M (1991) Forest fires: an introduction to wildland fire behavior, management, firefighting, and prevention. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gordon CE, Price OF, Tasker EM, Denham AJ (2017) Acacia shrubs respond positively to high severity wildfire: Implications for conservation and fuel hazard management. The Science of the Total Environment 575, 858–868.
| Acacia shrubs respond positively to high severity wildfire: Implications for conservation and fuel hazard management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27692936PubMed |
Gould JS, Cruz MG (2012) Australian fuel classification: Stage II. Ecosystem Sciences and Climate Adaption Flagship, CSIRO, Canberra Australia.
Gould JS, McCaw WL, Cheney NP (2011) Quantifying fine fuel dynamics and structure in dry eucalypt forest (Eucalyptus marginata) in Western Australia for fire management. Forest Ecology and Management 262, 531–546.
| Quantifying fine fuel dynamics and structure in dry eucalypt forest (Eucalyptus marginata) in Western Australia for fire management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Graham RT, McCaffrey S, Jain TB (2004) Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-120. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. (Fort Collins, CO)
Greenland DJ, Nye PH (1959) Increases in the carbon and nitrogen contents of tropical soils under natural fallows. European Journal of Soil Science 10, 284–299.
| Increases in the carbon and nitrogen contents of tropical soils under natural fallows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Griffiths D (1999) Improved formula for the drought factor in McArthurs forest fire danger meter. Australian Forestry 62, 202–206.
| Improved formula for the drought factor in McArthurs forest fire danger meter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haines TK, Martinez J, Cleaves DA (1998) Influences on prescribed burning activity in the United States national forest system. International Forest Fire News 19, 43–46.
Haslem A, Kelly LT, Nimmo DG, Watson SJ, Kenny SA, Taylor RS, Avitabile SC, Callister KE, Spence-Bailey LM, Clarke MF, Bennett AF (2011) Habitat or fuel? Implications of long- term, post-fire dynamics for the development of key resources for fauna and fire. Journal of Applied Ecology 48, 247–256.
| Habitat or fuel? Implications of long- term, post-fire dynamics for the development of key resources for fauna and fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt HW (1977) A simulation model for de- composition in grasslands. Ecology 58, 469–484.
| A simulation model for de- composition in grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jain TB, Battaglia MA, Han HS, Graham RT, Keyes CR, Fried JS, Sandquist JE (2012) A comprehensive guide to fuel management practices for dry mixed conifer forests in the northwestern United States. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-292. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. (Fort Collins, CO)
Jenny H, Gessel SP, Bingham FT (1949) Comparative study of decomposition rates of organic matter in temperate and tropical regions. Soil Science 68, 419–432.
| Comparative study of decomposition rates of organic matter in temperate and tropical regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavvadias VA, Alifragis D, Tsiontsis A, Brofas G, Stamatelos G (2001) Litterfall, litter accumulation and litter decomposition rates in four forest ecosystems in northern Greece. Forest Ecology and Management 144, 113–127.
| Litterfall, litter accumulation and litter decomposition rates in four forest ecosystems in northern Greece.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keane RE (2015) Wildland fuel fundamentals and applications. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland.
Keane R (2008) Biophysical controls on surface fuel litterfall and decomposition in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38, 1431–1445.
| Biophysical controls on surface fuel litterfall and decomposition in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keane R (2013) Describing wildland surface fuel loading for fire management: a review of approaches, methods and systems. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 51–62.
| Describing wildland surface fuel loading for fire management: a review of approaches, methods and systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Knapp EE, Estes BL, Skinner CN (2009) Ecological effects of prescribed fire season: a literature review and synthesis for managers. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-224. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. (Albany, CA)
Lydersen JM, Collins BM, Knapp EE, Roller GB, Stephens S (2015) Relating fuel loads to overstorey structure and composition in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 484–494.
| Relating fuel loads to overstorey structure and composition in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macfarlane C, Lardner T, Patterson K, Grigg AH (2010) A new model for predicting understorey leaf area from biomass in eucalypt forest to test the ecohydrological equilibrium theory. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 1, 371–379.
| A new model for predicting understorey leaf area from biomass in eucalypt forest to test the ecohydrological equilibrium theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marsden-Smedley J, Catchpole W (1995) Fire behaviour modelling in Tasmanian buttongrass moorlands. I. Fuel characteristics. International Journal of Wildland Fire 5, 203–214.
| Fire behaviour modelling in Tasmanian buttongrass moorlands. I. Fuel characteristics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matthews S, Sullivan AL, Watson P, Williams RJ (2012) Climate change, fuel and fire behaviour in a eucalypt forest. Global Change Biology 18, 3212–3223.
| Climate change, fuel and fire behaviour in a eucalypt forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28741824PubMed |
McArthur AG (1967) Fire behaviour in eucalypt forests, Leaflet no. 107. Department of Natural Development, Canberra, ACT.
McCarthy MA, Gill AM, Bradstock RA (2001) Theoretical fire-interval distributions. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 73–77.
| Theoretical fire-interval distributions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCaw WL, Neal JE, Smith RH (2002) Stand characteristics and fuel accumulation in a sequence of even-aged Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) stands in south-west Western Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 158, 263–271.
| Stand characteristics and fuel accumulation in a sequence of even-aged Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) stands in south-west Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCormick B (2002) Bushfires: Is Fuel Reduction Burning the Answer? Current issues brief No. 8 2002 03. Department of the Parliamentary Library, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/CIB/cib0203/03Cib08 [verified 29 September 2020]
McRae R, Sharples J (2015) Assessing mitigation of the risk from extreme wildfires using MODIS hotspot data. In ‘Proceedings of the 21st International Congress on Modelling and Simulation’, Gold Coast, Australia. (Eds T Weber, MJ McPhee, RS Anderssen) pp. 250–256. https://doi.org/10.36334/MODSIM.2015.A4.Mcrae2
Mercer GN, Gill AM, Weber RO (1995) A flexible, non-deterministic, litter accumulation model. In ‘Bushfire 1995’ Presented Papers. Australian Bushfire Conference, pp. 27–30.
Morrison DA, Buckney RT, Bewick BJ, Cary GJ (1996) Conservation conflicts over burning bush in south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 76, 167–175.
| Conservation conflicts over burning bush in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Noble IR, Gill AM, Bary GAV (1980) McArthurs fire-danger meters expressed as equations. Austral Ecology 5, 201–203.
| McArthurs fire-danger meters expressed as equations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Connell AM (1987) Litter dynamics in Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests of south-western Australia. Journal of Ecology 75, 781–796.
| Litter dynamics in Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests of south-western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Odiwe AI, Muoghalu JI (2003) Litterfall dynamics and forest floor litter as influenced by fire in a secondary lowland rain forest in Nigeria. Tropical Ecology 44, 241–250.
Olson JS (1963) Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in eco- logical systems. Ecology 44, 322–331.
| Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in eco- logical systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ottmar R, Sandberg D, Riccardi C, Prichard S (2007) An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 2383–2393.
| An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peterson DL, Johnson MC, Agee JK, Jain TB, McKenzie D, Reinhardt ED (2005) Forest structure and fire hazard in dry forests of the western United States. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-628. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. (Portland, OR)
Pierce K, Ohmann J, Wimberly M, Gregory M, Fried J (2009) Mapping wildland fuels and forest structure for land management: a comparison of nearest neighbor imputation and other methods. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, 1901–1916.
| Mapping wildland fuels and forest structure for land management: a comparison of nearest neighbor imputation and other methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pinck LA, Allison FE, Sherman MS (1950) Maintenance of soil organic matter: II. Losses of carbon and nitrogen from young and mature plant materials during decomposition in soil. Soil Science 69, 391–402.
| Maintenance of soil organic matter: II. Losses of carbon and nitrogen from young and mature plant materials during decomposition in soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Raison RJ, Woods PV, Khanna PK (1983) Dynamics of fine fuels in recurrently burnt eucalypt forests. Australian Forestry 46, 294–302.
| Dynamics of fine fuels in recurrently burnt eucalypt forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Raison RJ, Woods PV, Khanna PK (1986) Decomposition and accumulation of litter after fire in sub-alpine eucalypt forests. Austral Ecology 11, 9–19.
| Decomposition and accumulation of litter after fire in sub-alpine eucalypt forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Reinhardt ED, Keane RE, Brown JK (1997) First Order Fire Effects Model: FOFEM 4.0, User's Guide. General Technical Report INT-GTR-344. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. (Ogden, UT)
Rochow JJ (1974) Litter fall relations in a Missouri forest. Oikos 25, 80–85.
| Litter fall relations in a Missouri forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rovira P, Rovira R (2010) Fitting litter decomposition datasets to mathematical curves: towards a generalised exponential approach. Geoderma 155, 329–343.
| Fitting litter decomposition datasets to mathematical curves: towards a generalised exponential approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ryan KC, Knapp EE, Varner JM (2013) Prescribed fire in North American forests and woodlands: history, current practice, and challenges. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11, e15–e24.
| Prescribed fire in North American forests and woodlands: history, current practice, and challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scott JH, Reinhardt ED (2001) Assessing crown fire potential by linking models of surface and crown fire behavior. Research Paper RMRS-RP-29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. (Fort Collins, CO)
Specht RL, Morgan DG (1981) The balance between the foliage projective covers of overstorey and understorey strata in Australian vegetation. Australian Journal of Ecology 6, 193–202.
| The balance between the foliage projective covers of overstorey and understorey strata in Australian vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stalling C, Keane RE, Retzlaff M (2017) Surface fuel changes after severe disturbances in northern Rocky Mountain ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 400, 38–47.
| Surface fuel changes after severe disturbances in northern Rocky Mountain ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stambaugh MC, Guyette RP, Grabner KW, Kolaks J (2006) Understanding Ozark forest litter variability through a synthesis of accumulation rates and fire events. In ‘Fuels Management-How to Measure Success’, Conference Proceedings, 28–30 March 2006, Portland, OR. (Comps PL Andrews, BW Butler). Proceedings RMRS-P-41. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. pp. 321–332. Vol. 41. (Fort Collins, CO)
Storey M, Price O, Tasker E (2016) The role of weather, past fire and topography in crown fire occurrence in eastern Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 1048–1060.
| The role of weather, past fire and topography in crown fire occurrence in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tepley AJ, Veblen TT, Perry GLW, Stewart GH, Naficy CE (2016) Positive feedbacks to fire-driven deforestation following human colonization of the South Island of New Zealand. Ecosystems 19, 1325–1344.
| Positive feedbacks to fire-driven deforestation following human colonization of the South Island of New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Terrier A, Paquette M, Gauthier S, Girardin M, Pelletier-Bergeron S, Bergeron Y (2016) Influence of fuel load dynamics on carbon emission by wildfires in the Clay Belt boreal landscape. Forests 8, 9
| Influence of fuel load dynamics on carbon emission by wildfires in the Clay Belt boreal landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tiribelli F, Kitzberger T, Morales JM (2018) Changes in vegetation structure and fuel characteristics along post-fire succession promote alternative stable states and positive fire vegetation feedbacks. Journal of Vegetation Science 29, 147–156.
| Changes in vegetation structure and fuel characteristics along post-fire succession promote alternative stable states and positive fire vegetation feedbacks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tolhurst KG, Shields B, Chong D (2008) Phoenix: development and application of a bushfire risk management tool. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 23, 47–54.
Tolhurst K, Kelly N (2003) Effects of repeated low-intensity fire on fuel dynamics in a mixed eucalypt foothill forest in south-eastern Australia summary report (1984–1999). Research report no. 59. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne.
Twomey B, Sturgess A (2016) Simulation Analysis-based Risk Evaluation (SABRE) Fire: operational stochastic fire spread decision support capability in the Queensland fire and emergency services. Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authority Council (AFAC), Brisbane, Australia.
Tymstra C, Bryce RW, Wotton BM, Taylor SW, Armitage OB (2010) Development and Structure of Prometheus: the Canadian Wildland Fire Growth Simulation Model. Information Report NOR-X-417. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre.
Van Wagner CE (1977) Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7, 23–34.
| Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1989) Prediction of crown fire in conifer stands. In ‘Procedings 10th Conference of Fire and Forest Meteorology’, 17–21 April, Ottawa, Ontario. (Eds DC MacIver, H Auld, R Whitewood) pp. 207–212. Forestry Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
Vázquez FJ, Acea MJ, Carballas T (1993) Soil microbial populations after wildfire. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 13, 93–103.
| Soil microbial populations after wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Victorian Lands Alliance (2010) Fuel Reduction Burning in Southern Australia’s Forests: A Review of Its Effectiveness as a Bushfire Management Tool 2010. (Ed M Ponyter). Melbourne, Victoria.
Volkova L, Aparicio AGW, Weston CJ (2019) Fire intensity effects on post-fire fuel recovery in Eucalyptus open forests of south-eastern Australia. The. Science of the Total Environment 670, 328–336.
| Fire intensity effects on post-fire fuel recovery in Eucalyptus open forests of south-eastern Australia. The.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Waldrop TA, Goodrick SL (2018) Introduction to prescribed fire in southern ecosystems. US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Asheville, NC.
Walker J (1981) Fuel dynamics in Australian vegetation. In ‘Fire and the Australian biota’ (Eds AM Gill, RH Groves, IR Noble) pp. 101–127. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra)
Walker J, Hopkins MS (1990) Vegetation. In ‘Australian soil and land survey: field handbook’, 2nd edn. (Eds RC McDonald, RF Isbell, JG Speight, J Walker, MS Hopkins) pp. 58–86. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Wider RK, Lang GE (1982) A critique of the analytical methods used in examining de- composition data obtained from litter bags. Ecology 63, 1636–1642.
| A critique of the analytical methods used in examining de- composition data obtained from litter bags.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zhang D, Hui D, Luo Y, Zhou G (2008) Rates of litter decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems: global patterns and controlling factors. Journal of Plant Ecology 1, 85–93.
| Rates of litter decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems: global patterns and controlling factors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zylstra PJ (2018) Flammability dynamics in the Australian Alps. Austral Ecology 43, 578–591.
| Flammability dynamics in the Australian Alps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
