Register      Login
International Journal of Wildland Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire Society
Journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Non-additive effects of alternative stable states on landscape flammability in NW Patagonia: fire history and simulation modelling evidence

Florencia Tiribelli https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4746-1704 A C , Juan Manuel Morales A , Juan Haridas Gowda A , Mónica Mermoz B and Thomas Kitzberger A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Laboratorio Ecotono, INIBIOMA–Universidad Nacional del Comahue, CONICET, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina.

B Delegación Regional Patagonia, Administración de Parques Nacionales, Vicealmirante O’Connor 1188, 8400 Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina.

C Corresponding author. Email: flopitiribelli@gmail.com

International Journal of Wildland Fire 28(2) 149-159 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF18073
Submitted: 18 May 2018  Accepted: 29 November 2018   Published: 10 January 2019

Abstract

Understanding the relationship between flammability and time since fire (TSF) is crucial for predicting ecosystem responses to changes in fire regimes. Landscapes composed of alternative stable states displaying positive fire–vegetation feedbacks are especially sensitive to these changes. We derived TSF–flammability functions (Logistic, Olson, Moisture, Weibull) from survival analysis applied to north-west Patagonian landscapes and simulated landscapes composed of different proportions of alternative stable states (shrublands and forest) and fire frequencies. We expected that landscapes dominated by shrublands would show an asymptotic growth (Logistic or Olson) and those dominated by forest would show a hump-shaped growth (Moisture). Additionally, we expected that the landscape-level flammability functions would resemble the pattern of the most abundant community. We found that shrublands tended to dominate the TSF–flammability relationship (Logistic) even when they were less abundant in the landscape (non-additive effects). The flammability function followed a hump-shaped growth (Moisture) only when the forest cover was >80%. Our results highlight that alternative stable states occur not only because of positive fire–vegetation feedbacks, but also thanks to the non-additivity of the flammability of the different states in the landscape. Non-additive effects could have an important role in accelerating landscape transformations towards more flammable states.

Additional keywords: ecosystems, temperate, fire frequency, fire history, fuel, age.


References

Beckage B, Platt WJ, Gross LJ (2009) Vegetation, fire, and feedbacks: a disturbance? A disturbance-mediated model of savannas. American Naturalist 174, 805–818.
Vegetation, fire, and feedbacks: a disturbance? A disturbance-mediated model of savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19860540PubMed |

Blackhall M, Raffaele E, Veblen TT (2008) Cattle affect early post-fire regeneration in a Nothofagus dombeyi–Austrocedrus chilensis mixed forest in northern Patagonia, Argentina. Biological Conservation 141, 2251–2261.
Cattle affect early post-fire regeneration in a Nothofagus dombeyi–Austrocedrus chilensis mixed forest in northern Patagonia, Argentina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Blackhall M, Raffaele E, Veblen TT (2012) Is foliar flammability of woody species related to time since fire and herbivory in northwest Patagonia, Argentina? Journal of Vegetation Science 23, 931–941.
Is foliar flammability of woody species related to time since fire and herbivory in northwest Patagonia, Argentina?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Blackhall M, Raffaele E, Paritsis J, Tiribelli F, Morales JM, Kitzberger T, Gowda JH, Veblen TT (2017) Effects of biological legacies and herbivory on fuels and flammability traits: a long-term experimental study of alternative stable states. Journal of Ecology 105, 1309–1322.
Effects of biological legacies and herbivory on fuels and flammability traits: a long-term experimental study of alternative stable states.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bormann FH, Likens GE (1979) Catastrophic disturbance and the steady state in Northern Hardwood Forests: a new look at the role of disturbance in the development of forest ecosystems suggest important implications for land-use policies. American Scientist 67, 660–669.
Catastrophic disturbance and the steady state in Northern Hardwood Forests: a new look at the role of disturbance in the development of forest ecosystems suggest important implications for land-use policies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bowman DMJS, Balch JK, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Cochrane MA, D’Antonio CM, Defries R, Johnston FH, Keeley JE, Krawchuk MA, Kull CA, Mack M, Moritz MA, Pyne SJ, Roos CI, Scott AC, Sodhi NS, Swetnam TW (2011) The human dimension of fire regimes on Earth. Journal of Biogeography 38, 2223–2236.
The human dimension of fire regimes on Earth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cochrane MA (1999) Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284, 1832–1835.
Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10364555PubMed |

Covington W, Moore M (1994) Southwestern ponderosa forest structure: changes since Euro-American settlement. Journal of Forestry 92, 39–47.
Southwestern ponderosa forest structure: changes since Euro-American settlement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

de Magalhães RMQ, Schwilk DW (2012) Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology 100, 1153–1163.
Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fall A, Fall J (2001) A domain-specific language for models of landscape dynamics. Ecological Modelling 141, 1–18.
A domain-specific language for models of landscape dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gardner RH, Turner MG, Dale VH, O’Neill R V. (1992) A percolation model of ecological flows. In ‘Landscape Boundaries: Consequences for Biotic Diversity and Ecological Flows’. (Eds AJ Hansen, F di Castri) pp. 259–269. (Springer-Verlag: New York, NY, USA).

Gelman A, Hill J (2007) ‘Data Analysis using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models, Vol. 1.’ (Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA)

Gosper CR, Prober SM, Yates CJ (2013) Multi-century changes in vegetation structure and fuel availability in fire-sensitive eucalypt woodlands. Forest Ecology and Management 310, 102–109.
Multi-century changes in vegetation structure and fuel availability in fire-sensitive eucalypt woodlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gowda JH, Kitzberger T, Premoli AC (2012) Landscape responses to a century of land use along the northern Patagonian forest–steppe transition. Plant Ecology 213, 259–272.
Landscape responses to a century of land use along the northern Patagonian forest–steppe transition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gowda JH, Tiribelli F, Mermoz M, Kitzberger T, Morales JM (2019) Fragmentation modulates the response of dichotomous landscapes to fire and seed dispersal. Ecological Modelling 392, 22–30.
Fragmentation modulates the response of dichotomous landscapes to fire and seed dispersal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heinselman ML (1973) Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Quaternary Research 3, 329–382.
Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Holz A, Veblen TT (2011) Variability in the Southern Annular Mode determines wildfire activity in Patagonia. Geophysical Research Letters 38,
Variability in the Southern Annular Mode determines wildfire activity in Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson EA, Gutsell SL (1994) Fire frequency models, methods and interpretations. Advances in Ecological Research 25, 239–287.
Fire frequency models, methods and interpretations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson EA, Van Wagner CE (1985) The theory and use of two fire history models. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 15, 214–220.
The theory and use of two fire history models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson EA, Miyanishi K, Bridge SRJ (2001) Wildfire regime in the boreal forest and the idea of suppression and fuel buildup. Conservation Biology 15, 1554–1557.
Wildfire regime in the boreal forest and the idea of suppression and fuel buildup.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kitzberger T, Veblen TT, Villalba R (1997) Climatic influences on fire regimes along a rain forest to xeric woodland gradient in northern Patagonia, Argentina. Journal of Biogeography 24, 35–47.
Climatic influences on fire regimes along a rain forest to xeric woodland gradient in northern Patagonia, Argentina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2699.1997.tb00048.x/abstract

Kitzberger T, Raffaele E, Heinemann K, Mazzarino MJ (2005) Effects of fire severity in a north Patagonian subalpine forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 16, 5–12.
Effects of fire severity in a north Patagonian subalpine forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kitzberger T, Aráoz E, Gowda JH, Mermoz M, Morales JM (2012) Decreases in fire spread probability with forest age promotes alternative community states, reduced resilience to climate variability and large fire regime shifts. Ecosystems 15, 97–112.
Decreases in fire spread probability with forest age promotes alternative community states, reduced resilience to climate variability and large fire regime shifts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kitzberger T, Perry GLW, Paritsis J, Gowda JH, Tepley AJ, Holz A, Veblen TT (2016) Fire–vegetation feedbacks and alternative states: common mechanisms of temperate forest vulnerability to fire in southern South America and New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 8643, 1–26.
Fire–vegetation feedbacks and alternative states: common mechanisms of temperate forest vulnerability to fire in southern South America and New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Landesmann JB, Morales JM (2018) The importance of fire refugia in the recolonization of a fire-sensitive conifer in northern Patagonia. Plant Ecology
The importance of fire refugia in the recolonization of a fire-sensitive conifer in northern Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Landesmann JB, Gowda JH, Garibaldi LA, Kitzberger T (2015) Survival, growth and vulnerability to drought in fire refuges: implications for the persistence of a fire-sensitive conifer in northern Patagonia. Oecologia 179, 1111–1122.
Survival, growth and vulnerability to drought in fire refuges: implications for the persistence of a fire-sensitive conifer in northern Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26334864PubMed |

Landesmann JB, Gowda JH, Kitzberger T, Michalet R (2016) Temporal shifts in the interaction between woody resprouters and an obligate seeder tree during a post-fire succession in Patagonia. Journal of Vegetation Science 27, 1198–1208.
Temporal shifts in the interaction between woody resprouters and an obligate seeder tree during a post-fire succession in Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lara A, Bran D, Rutherford P, Pérez A, Clayton S, Montoy C, Ayesa JA, Barrios D, Gross M, Iglesias G (1999) ‘Mapeo de la eco-región de los bosques valdivianos, Escala 1 : 500.000.’ Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina, Boletín Técnico 51.

Lindenmayer DB, Hobbs RJ, Likens GE, Krebs CJ, Banks SC (2011) Newly discovered landscape traps produce regime shifts in wet forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, 15887–15891.
Newly discovered landscape traps produce regime shifts in wet forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21876151PubMed |

Marlon JR, Bartlein PJ, Carcaillet C, Gavin DG, Harrison SP, Higuera PE, Joos F, Power MJ, Prentice IC (2009) Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia. Nature Geoscience 2, 697–702.
Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McCarthy MA, Gill AM, Lindenmayer DB (1999) Fire regimes in mountain ash forest: evidence from forest age structure, extinction models and wildlife habitat. Forest Ecology and Management 124, 193–203.
Fire regimes in mountain ash forest: evidence from forest age structure, extinction models and wildlife habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McCarthy MA, Gill AM, Bradstock RA (2001) Theoretical fire-interval distributions. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 73–77.
Theoretical fire-interval distributions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McWethy DB, Whitlock C, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, Fromont M, Li X, Dieffenbacher-Krall A, Hobbs WO, Fritz SC, Cook ER (2010) Rapid landscape transformation in South Island, New Zealand, following initial Polynesian settlement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, 21343–21348.
Rapid landscape transformation in South Island, New Zealand, following initial Polynesian settlement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21149690PubMed |

McWethy DB, Higuera PE, Whitlock C, Veblen TT, Bowman DMJS, Cary GJ, Haberle SG, Keane RE, Maxwell BD, McGlone MS, Perry GLW, Wilmshurst JM, Holz A, Tepley AJ (2013) A conceptual framework for predicting temperate ecosystem sensitivity to human impacts on fire regimes. Global Ecology and Biogeography 22, 900–912.
A conceptual framework for predicting temperate ecosystem sensitivity to human impacts on fire regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mermoz M, Kitzberger T, Veblen TT (2005) Landscape influences on occurrence and spread of wildfires in patagonian forests and shrublands. Ecology 86, 2705–2715.
Landscape influences on occurrence and spread of wildfires in patagonian forests and shrublands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Miller GH, Fogel ML, Magee JW, Gagan MK, Clarke SJ, Johnson BJ (2005) Ecosystem collapse in pleistocene Australia and a human role in megafaunal extinction. Science 309, 287–290.
Ecosystem collapse in pleistocene Australia and a human role in megafaunal extinction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16002615PubMed |

Morales JM, Mermoz M, Gowda JH, Kitzberger T (2015) A stochastic fire spread model for north Patagonia based on fire occurrence maps. Ecological Modelling 300, 73–80.
A stochastic fire spread model for north Patagonia based on fire occurrence maps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moreno F (1897) Reconocimiento de la región andina de la República Argentina. Apuntes preliminares sobre una excursión a los Territorios de Neuquén, Rio Negro, Chubut y Santa Cruz. Revista del Museo de la Plata 8, 1–180.

Moritz MA (2003) Spatiotemporal analysis of controls on shrubland fire regimes : age dependency and fire hazard. Ecological Society of America 84, 351–361.
Spatiotemporal analysis of controls on shrubland fire regimes : age dependency and fire hazard.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moritz MA, Keeley JE, Johnson EA, Schaffner AA (2004) Testing a basic assumption of shrubland fire management: how important is fuel age? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 67–72.
Testing a basic assumption of shrubland fire management: how important is fuel age?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moritz MA, Moody TJ, Miles LJ, Smith MM, de Valpine P (2009) The fire frequency analysis branch of the pyrostatistics tree: sampling decisions and censoring in fire interval data. Environmental and Ecological Statistics 16, 271–289.
The fire frequency analysis branch of the pyrostatistics tree: sampling decisions and censoring in fire interval data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

O’Donnell AJ, Boer MM, McCaw WL, Grierson PF (2011) Vegetation and landscape connectivity control wildfire intervals in unmanaged semi-arid shrublands and woodlands in Australia. Journal of Biogeography 38, 112–124.
Vegetation and landscape connectivity control wildfire intervals in unmanaged semi-arid shrublands and woodlands in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Odion DC, Frost E, Strittholt J (2004) Patterns of fire severity and forest conditions in the western Klamath Mountains, California. Conservation ecology 18, 927–936.
Patterns of fire severity and forest conditions in the western Klamath Mountains, California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Odion DC, Moritz MA, DellaSala DA (2010) Alternative community states maintained by fire in the Klamath Mountains, USA. Journal of Ecology 98, 96–105.
Alternative community states maintained by fire in the Klamath Mountains, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Oliveira SLJ, Pereira JMC, Carreiras JMB (2012) Fire frequency analysis in Portugal (1975–2005), using Landsat-based burnt area maps. International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, 48–60.
Fire frequency analysis in Portugal (1975–2005), using Landsat-based burnt area maps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Orellana I (2013) Informe final: comunidades vegetales y ecosistemas terrestres del Parque Nacional Lago Puelo. Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco y Administración de Parques Nacionales. Actualización de los planes de manejo del Parque Nacional Lago Puelo y Parque Nacional los Alerces. PRESTAMO BID 1648 OC/AR. [In Spanish]

Paritsis J, Holz A, Veblen TT, Kitzberger T (2013) Habitat distribution modeling reveals vegetation flammability and land use as drivers of wildfire in SW Patagonia. Ecosphere 4, 1–20.
Habitat distribution modeling reveals vegetation flammability and land use as drivers of wildfire in SW Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paritsis J, Veblen TT, Holz A (2015) Positive fire feedbacks contribute to shifts from Nothofagus pumilio forests to fire-prone shrublands in Patagonia. Journal of Vegetation Science 26, 89–101.
Positive fire feedbacks contribute to shifts from Nothofagus pumilio forests to fire-prone shrublands in Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pausas JG, Keeley JE (2014) Evolutionary ecology of resprouting and seeding in fire-prone ecosystems. New Phytologist 204, 55–65.
Evolutionary ecology of resprouting and seeding in fire-prone ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25298997PubMed |

Perry GLW, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, McWethy DB, Whitlock C (2012) Explaining fire-driven landscape transformation during the Initial Burning Period of New Zealand’s prehistory. Global Change Biology 18, 1609–1621.
Explaining fire-driven landscape transformation during the Initial Burning Period of New Zealand’s prehistory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Plummer M (2003) JAGS: a program for analysis of Bayesian graphical models using Gibbs sampling. In ‘Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Distributed Statistical Computing (DSC 2003)’, 20–22 March 2003, Vienna, Austria. (Eds K Hornik, F Leisch, A Zeileis) pp. 20–22. Available at https://www.r-project.org/conferences/DSC-2003/Proceedings/Plummer.pdf [Verified 19 December 2018]

Polakow DA, Dunne TT (1999) Modelling fire-return interval T: Stochasticity and censoring in the two-parameter Weibull model. Ecological Modelling 121, 79–102.
Modelling fire-return interval T: Stochasticity and censoring in the two-parameter Weibull model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Quantum GIS Development Team (2012) Quantum GIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. Available at http://qgis.osgeo.org [Verified 19 December 2018]

Rothkugel M (1916) ‘Los Bosques Patagónicos.’ (Ministerio de Agricultura: Buenos Aires). [In Spanish]

Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 648–656.
Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Scheffer M, Carpenter S, Foley JA, Folke C, Walker B (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413, 591–596.
Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11595939PubMed |

Schertzer E, Staver AC, Levin SA (2015) Implications of the spatial dynamics of fire spread for the bistability of savanna and forest. Journal of Mathematical Biology 70, 329–341.
Implications of the spatial dynamics of fire spread for the bistability of savanna and forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24570348PubMed |

Tepley AJ, Veblen TT, Perry GLW, Stewart GH, Naficy CE (2016) Positive feedbacks to fire-driven deforestation following human colonization of the South Island of New Zealand. Ecosystems 19, 1325–1344.
Positive feedbacks to fire-driven deforestation following human colonization of the South Island of New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tepley AJ, Thomann E, Veblen TT, Perry GLW, Holz A, Paritsis J, Kitzberger T, Anderson-Teixeira KJ (2018) Influences of fire-vegetation feedbacks and post-fire recovery rates on forest landscape vulnerability to altered fire regimes. Journal of Ecology 106, 1925–1940.
Influences of fire-vegetation feedbacks and post-fire recovery rates on forest landscape vulnerability to altered fire regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tiribelli F, Kitzberger T, Morales JM (2018) Changes in vegetation structure and fuel characteristics along post-fire succession promote alternative stable states and positive fire–vegetation feedbacks. Journal of Vegetation Science 1, 11.
Changes in vegetation structure and fuel characteristics along post-fire succession promote alternative stable states and positive fire–vegetation feedbacks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Turner MG, Gardner RH, Dale VH, O’Neill RV (1989) Predicting the spread of disturbance across heterogeneous landscapes. Oikos 55, 121.
Predicting the spread of disturbance across heterogeneous landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

van Altena C, van Logtestijn RSP, Cornwell WK, Cornelissen JHC (2012) Species composition and fire: non-additive mixture effects on ground fuel flammability. Frontiers of Plant Science 3, 1–10.
Species composition and fire: non-additive mixture effects on ground fuel flammability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Van Wilgen BW, Forsyth GG, de Klerk H, Das S, Khuluse S, Schmitz P (2010) Fire management in Mediterranean-climate shrublands: a case study from the Cape fynbos, South Africa. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 631–638.
Fire management in Mediterranean-climate shrublands: a case study from the Cape fynbos, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veblen TT, Lorenz DC (1987) Post-fire stand development of AustrocedrusNothofagus forests in northern Patagonia. Vegetatio 71, 113–126.
Post-fire stand development of AustrocedrusNothofagus forests in northern Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veblen TT, Lorenz DC (1988) Recent vegetation changes along the forest/steppe ecotone of Northern Patagonia. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 78, 93–111.
Recent vegetation changes along the forest/steppe ecotone of Northern Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veblen TT, Kitzberger T, Lara A (1992) Disturbance and forest dynamics along a transect from Andean rain forest to Patagonian shrubland. Journal of Vegetation Science 3, 507–520.
Disturbance and forest dynamics along a transect from Andean rain forest to Patagonian shrubland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veblen TT, Burns BR, Kitzberger T, Lara A, Villalba R (1995) The ecology of the conifers of southern South America. ‘Ecology of the Southern Conifers’. (Eds NJ Enright, RS Hill) pp. 120–155. (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)

Veblen TT, Kitzberger T, Raffaele E, Lorenz DC (2003) Fire history and vegetation changes in northern Patagonia, Argentina. ‘Fire History and Vegetation Changes in Northern Patagonia, Argentina’. pp. 265–295. (Springer-Verlag: New York, NY, USA)

Veblen TT, Kitzberger T, Raffaele E, Mermoz M, González ME, Sibold JS, Holz A (2008) The historical range of variability of fires in the Andean–Patagonian Nothofagus forest region. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 724.
The historical range of variability of fires in the Andean–Patagonian Nothofagus forest region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Watanabe S (2012) A Widely Applicable Bayesian Information Criterion. Journal of Machine Learning Research 14, 867–897.

Whitlock C, McWethy DB, Tepley AJ, Veblen TT, Holz A, McGlone MS, Perry GLW, Wilmshurst JM, Wood SW (2015) Past and present vulnerability of closed-canopy temperate forests to altered fire regimes: a comparison of the Pacific Northwest, New Zealand, and Patagonia. Bioscience 65, 151–163.
Past and present vulnerability of closed-canopy temperate forests to altered fire regimes: a comparison of the Pacific Northwest, New Zealand, and Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Willis B (1914) ‘El Norte de la Patagonia.’ (Comisión de estudios hidrológicos, Dirección de Parques Nacionales, Buenos Aires)

Wilson JB, Agnew ADQ (1992) Positive feedback switches in plant communities. Advances in Ecological Research 23, 263–336.
Positive feedback switches in plant communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wood SW, Bowman DMJS (2012) Alternative stable states and the role of fire–vegetation–soil feedbacks in the temperate wilderness of southwest Tasmania. Landscape Ecology 27, 13–28.
Alternative stable states and the role of fire–vegetation–soil feedbacks in the temperate wilderness of southwest Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zylstra PJ (2018) Flammability dynamics in the Australian Alps. Austral Ecology 43, 578–591.
Flammability dynamics in the Australian Alps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |