Register      Login
International Journal of Wildland Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire Society
Journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Comparing the height and area of wild and prescribed fire particle plumes in south-east Australia using weather radar

Owen F. Price A D , Phil J. Purdam B , Grant J. Williamson C and David M. J. S. Bowman C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfire, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.

B Retired, formerly at Bureau of Meteorology Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research, 700 Collins Street, Docklands, Vic. 3008, Australia.

C School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.

D Corresponding author. Email: oprice@uow.edu.au

International Journal of Wildland Fire 27(8) 525-537 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF17166
Submitted: 5 April 2017  Accepted: 13 June 2018   Published: 13 July 2018

Abstract

Smoke pollution from landscape fires is a major health issue. Prescribed burning aims to reduce the area and impact of wildfire, but itself produces smoke pollution. This raises the question as to whether the smoke production and transport from prescribed fires is substantially different compared to wildfires. We examined the maximum height, width and areal footprint of large-particle plumes from 97 wild and 126 prescribed fires in south-eastern Australia using the existing network of weather radars. Radar detects large particles in smoke (probably those >100 μm) and hence is an imperfect proxy for microfine (<2 μm) particles that are known to affect human health. Of the 223 landscape fires, ~45% of plumes were detected, with the probability being >0.8 for large fires (>100 000 ha) regardless of type, closer than 50 km from the radar. Plume height was strongly influenced by fire area, the height of the planetary boundary layer and fire type. Plume heights differed between wildfire (range 1016–12 206 m, median 3260 m) and prescribed fires (range 706–6397 m, median 1669 m), and prescribed fires were predicted to be 800–1200 m lower than wildfires, controlling for other factors. For both wildfires and prescribed fires, the maximum plume footprint was always near the ground.

Additional keywords: 3D Rapic, injection height, rain radar, particulates, smoke plume, smoke pollution.


References

Amiridis V, Giannakaki E, Balis DS, Gerasopoulos E, Pytharoulis I, Zanis P, Kazadzis S, Melas D, Zerefos C (2010) Smoke injection heights from agricultural burning in Eastern Europe as seen by CALIPSO. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 11567–11576.
Smoke injection heights from agricultural burning in Eastern Europe as seen by CALIPSO.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Banta RM, Olivier LD, Holloway ET, Kropfli RA, Bartram BW, Cupp RE, Post MJ (1992) Smoke-column observations from 2 forest-fires using doppler lidar and doppler radar. Journal of Applied Meteorology 31, 1328–1349.
Smoke-column observations from 2 forest-fires using doppler lidar and doppler radar.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baum T, Thompson L, Ghorbani K (2011) Complex dielectric measurements of forest fire ash at X-band frequencies. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 8, 859–863.
Complex dielectric measurements of forest fire ash at X-band frequencies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baum TC, Thompson L, Ghorbani K (2015) The nature of fire ash particles: microwave material properties, dynamic behavior, and temperature correlation. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 8, 480–492.
The nature of fire ash particles: microwave material properties, dynamic behavior, and temperature correlation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boer MM, Sadler RJ, Wittkuhn R, McCaw L, Grierson PF (2009) Long-term impacts of prescribed burning on regional extent and incidence of wildfires – evidence from fifty years of active fire management in SW Australian forests. Forest Ecology and Management 259, 132–142.
Long-term impacts of prescribed burning on regional extent and incidence of wildfires – evidence from fifty years of active fire management in SW Australian forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bradstock RA, Hammill KA, Collins L, Price O (2010) Effects of weather, fuel and terrain on fire severity in topographically diverse landscapes of south-eastern Australia. Landscape Ecology 25, 607–619.
Effects of weather, fuel and terrain on fire severity in topographically diverse landscapes of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Davies I, Lindenmayer DB, Price O, Williams RJ (2012) Wildfires, fuel treatment and risk mitigation in Australian eucalypt forests: insights from landscape-scale simulation. Journal of Environmental Management 105, 66–75.
Wildfires, fuel treatment and risk mitigation in Australian eucalypt forests: insights from landscape-scale simulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) ‘Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: a Practical Information–Theoretic Approach.’ (Springer-Verlag: New York, NY, USA)

Cruz MG, Sullivan AL, Gould JS, Sims NC, Bannister AJ, Hollis JJ, Hurley RJ (2012) Anatomy of a catastrophic wildfire: the Black Saturday Kilmore East fire in Victoria, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 284, 269–285.
Anatomy of a catastrophic wildfire: the Black Saturday Kilmore East fire in Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Di Virgilio D, Hart MA, Jiang N (2018) Meteorological controls on atmospheric particulate pollution during hazard reduction burns. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 18, 6585–6599.
Meteorological controls on atmospheric particulate pollution during hazard reduction burns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Diner DJ, Fromm MD, Torres O, Logan JA, Martonchik JV, Kahn RA (2004) New satellite observations of upper tropospheric/lower stratospheric aerosols: case studies over the US and Canada. Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 85, A21B–0744.

Dowdy AJ, Fromm MD, McCarthy N (2017) Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research – D. Atmospheres 122, 7342–7354.
Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Faustini A, Alessandrini ER, Pey J, Perez N, Samoli E, Querol X, Cadum E, Perrino C, Ostro B, Ranzi A, Sunyer J, Stafoggia M, Forastiere F, Grp M-PS (2015) Short-term effects of particulate matter on mortality during forest fires in Southern Europe: results of the MED-PARTICLES Project. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 72, 323–329.
Short-term effects of particulate matter on mortality during forest fires in Southern Europe: results of the MED-PARTICLES Project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Freitas SR, Longo KM, Chatfield R, Latham D, Dias M, Andreae MO, Prins E, Santos JC, Gielow R, Carvalho JA (2007) Including the sub-grid scale plume rise of vegetation fires in low resolution atmospheric transport models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7, 3385–3398.
Including the sub-grid scale plume rise of vegetation fires in low resolution atmospheric transport models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fromm MD, McRae RHD, Sharples JJ, Kablick GP (2012) Pyrocumulonimbus pair in Wollemi and Blue Mountains National Parks, 22 November 2006. Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal 62, 117–126.
Pyrocumulonimbus pair in Wollemi and Blue Mountains National Parks, 22 November 2006.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Garcia-Menendez F, Hu YT, Odman MT (2014) Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: Sensitivity to spatiotemporal allocation of fire emissions. The Science of the Total Environment 493, 544–553.
Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: Sensitivity to spatiotemporal allocation of fire emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gonzi S, Palmer PI, Paugam R, Wooster M, Deeter MN (2015) Quantifying pyroconvective injection heights using observations of fire energy: sensitivity of spaceborne observations of carbon monoxide. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15, 4339–4355.
Quantifying pyroconvective injection heights using observations of fire energy: sensitivity of spaceborne observations of carbon monoxide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Goodrick SL, Achtemeier GL, Larkin NK, Liu YQ, Strand TM (2013) Modelling smoke transport from wildland fires: a review. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 83–94.
Modelling smoke transport from wildland fires: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gordon C, Price O (2015) A review of fuel load dynamics in Heathlands and Forested Wetlands of New South Wales: A report to the Rural Fire Service of New South Wales. Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires, University of Wollongong, Wollongong.

Griffiths D (1999) Improved formula for the drought factor in McArthur’s Forest Fire Danger Meter. Australian Forestry 62, 202–206.
Improved formula for the drought factor in McArthur’s Forest Fire Danger Meter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Haikerwal A, Reisen F, Sim MR, Abramson MJ, Meyer CP, Johnston FH, Dennekamp M (2015) Impact of smoke from prescribed burning: Is it a public health concern? Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 65, 592–598.
Impact of smoke from prescribed burning: Is it a public health concern?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hufford GL, Kelley HL, Sparkman W, Moore RK (1998) Use of real-time multisatellite and radar data to support forest fire management. Weather and Forecasting 13, 592–605.
Use of real-time multisatellite and radar data to support forest fire management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jayachandran S (2009) Air quality and early-life mortality evidence from Indonesia’s wildfires. The Journal of Human Resources 44, 916–954.
Air quality and early-life mortality evidence from Indonesia’s wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jian Y, Fu TM (2014) Injection heights of springtime biomass-burning plumes over peninsular Southeast Asia and their impacts on long-range pollutant transport. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 14, 3977–3989.
Injection heights of springtime biomass-burning plumes over peninsular Southeast Asia and their impacts on long-range pollutant transport.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnston FH, Hanigan IC, Henderson SB, Morgan GG, Bowman DMJS (2011a) Extreme air pollution events from bushfires and dust storms and their association with mortality in Sydney, Australia 1994–2007. Environmental Research 111, 811–816.
Extreme air pollution events from bushfires and dust storms and their association with mortality in Sydney, Australia 1994–2007.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnston FH, Hanigan IC, Henderson SB, Morgan GG, Portner T, Williamson GJ, Bowman DMJS (2011b) Creating an integrated historical record of extreme bushfire smoke events in 3 Australian cities from 1994 to 2007. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 61, 390–398.
Creating an integrated historical record of extreme bushfire smoke events in 3 Australian cities from 1994 to 2007.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnston FH, Henderson SB, Chen Y, Randerson JT, Marlier M, DeFries RS, Kinney P, Bowman D, Brauer M (2012) Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape Fires. Environmental Health Perspectives 120, 695–701.
Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape Fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jones TA, Christopher SA (2010) Satellite and radar remote sensing of southern plains grass fires: a case study. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 49, 2133–2146.
Satellite and radar remote sensing of southern plains grass fires: a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jones TA, Christopher SA, Petersen W (2009) Dual-polarization radar characteristics of an apartment fire. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 26, 2257–2269.
Dual-polarization radar characteristics of an apartment fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jordan NS, Hoff RM, Bacmeister JT (2010) Validation of Goddard Earth Observing System-version 5 MERRA planetary boundary layer heights using CALIPSO. Journal of Geophysical Research – D. Atmospheres 115, D24218
Validation of Goddard Earth Observing System-version 5 MERRA planetary boundary layer heights using CALIPSO.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keetch JJ, Byram GM (1968) A drought index for forest fire control. USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Research Paper SE-38. (Asheville, NC, USA)

Keith DA (2004) Ocean shores to desert dunes: the native vegetation of New South Wales and the ACT.’’ (Department of Environment and Conservation: Hurstville, NSW, Australia)

Lakshmanan V, Hondl K, Potvin CK, Preignitz D (2013) An improved method for estimating radar echo-top height. Weather and Forecasting 28, 481–488.
An improved method for estimating radar echo-top height.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lang TJ, Rutledge SA, Dolan B, Krehbiel P, Rison W, Lindsey DT (2014) Lightning in wildfire smoke plumes observed in Colorado during summer 2012. Monthly Weather Review 142, 489–507.
Lightning in wildfire smoke plumes observed in Colorado during summer 2012.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lareau NP, Clements CB (2016) Environmental controls on pyrocumulus and pyrocumulonimbus initiation and development. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, 4005–4022.
Environmental controls on pyrocumulus and pyrocumulonimbus initiation and development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Larkin NK, O’Neill SM, Solomon R, Raffuse S, Strand T, Sullivan DC, Krull C, Rorig M, Peterson JL, Ferguson SA (2009) The BlueSky smoke modeling framework. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 906–920.
The BlueSky smoke modeling framework.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

LaRoche KT, Lang TJ (2017) Observations of ash, ice, and lightning within pyrocumulus clouds using polarimetric NEXRAD radars and the national lightning detection network. Monthly Weather Review 145, 4899–4910.
Observations of ash, ice, and lightning within pyrocumulus clouds using polarimetric NEXRAD radars and the national lightning detection network.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Liu ZH, Yang J, He HS (2013) Identifying the threshold of dominant controls on fire spread in a boreal forest landscape of northeast China. Plos One 8,

Loehle C (2004) Applying landscape principles to fire hazard reduction. Forest Ecology and Management 198, 261–267.

Martin KL, Hanigan IC, Morgan GG, Henderson SB, Johnston FH (2013) Air pollution from bushfires and their association with hospital admissions in Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong, Australia 1994–2007. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 37, 238–243.
Air pollution from bushfires and their association with hospital admissions in Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong, Australia 1994–2007.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mazzoni D, Logan JA, Diner D, Kahn R, Tong LL, Li QB (2007) A data-mining approach to associating MISR smoke plume heights with MODIS fire measurements. Remote Sensing of Environment 107, 138–148.
A data-mining approach to associating MISR smoke plume heights with MODIS fire measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Melnikov VM, Zrnic DS, Rabin RM, Zhang P (2008) Radar polarimetric signatures of fire plumes in Oklahoma. Geophysical Research Letters 35,

Mills G, McCaw L (2010) Atmospheric Stability Environments and Fire Weather in Australia – extending the Haines Index. Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research. Technical report 20. (Melbourne, Vic., Australia)

Mims SR, Kahn RA, Moroney CM, Gaitley BJ, Nelson DL, Garay MJ (2010) MISR stereo heights of grassland fire smoke plumes in Australia. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 48, 25–35.
MISR stereo heights of grassland fire smoke plumes in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Molod A, Takacs L, Suarez M, Bacmeister J (2015) Development of the GEOS-5 atmospheric general circulation model: evolution from MERRA to MERRA2. Geoscientific Model Development 8, 1339–1356.
Development of the GEOS-5 atmospheric general circulation model: evolution from MERRA to MERRA2.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nelson DL, Garay MJ, Kahn RA, Dunst BA (2013) Stereoscopic height and wind retrievals for aerosol plumes with the MISR Interactice eXplorer (MINX). Remote Sensing 5, 4593–4628.
Stereoscopic height and wind retrievals for aerosol plumes with the MISR Interactice eXplorer (MINX).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

North MP, Stephens S, Collins BM, Agee JK, Aplet G, Franklin JF, Fulé PZ (2015) Reform forest fire management: agency incentives undermine policy effectiveness. Science 349, 1280–1281.
Reform forest fire management: agency incentives undermine policy effectiveness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paugam R, Wooster M, Freitas S, Martin MV (2016) A review of approaches to estimate wildfire plume injection height within large-scale atmospheric chemical transport models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, 907–925.
A review of approaches to estimate wildfire plume injection height within large-scale atmospheric chemical transport models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pope CA, Dockery DW (2006) Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 56, 709–742.
Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Price OF, Bradstock RA (2011) Quantifying the influence of fuel age and weather on the annual extent of unplanned fires in the Sydney region of Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 142–151.
Quantifying the influence of fuel age and weather on the annual extent of unplanned fires in the Sydney region of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Price OF, Bradstock R (2012) The efficacy of fuel treatment in mitigating property loss during wildfires: insights from analysis of the severity of the catastrophic fires in 2009 in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 113, 146–157.
The efficacy of fuel treatment in mitigating property loss during wildfires: insights from analysis of the severity of the catastrophic fires in 2009 in Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Price OF, Bradstock RA (2013) The spatial domain of wildfire risk and response in the wildland–urban interface in Sydney, Australia. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 13, 3385–3393.
The spatial domain of wildfire risk and response in the wildland–urban interface in Sydney, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Price OF, Penman TD, Bradstock RA, Boer M, Clarke H (2015) Biogeographical variation in the potential effectiveness of prescribed fire in southeastern Australia. Journal of Biogeography 42, 2234–2245.
Biogeographical variation in the potential effectiveness of prescribed fire in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Price OF, Horsey B, Jiang N (2016) Local and regional smoke impacts from prescribed fires. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 16, 2247–2257.
Local and regional smoke impacts from prescribed fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Purdam PJ (2007) ‘3D-Rapic – the Australian Radar Visualisation System, 33rd American Meteorological Society Conference’, Cairns, Qld, Australia. American Meteorological Society (MIT Press: Williamsburg, VA, USA)

Radke LF, Hegg DA, Hobbs PV, Nance JD, Lyons JH, Laursen KK, Weiss RE, Riggan PJ, Ward DE (1991) Particulate and trace gas emissions from large biomass fires in North America. In ‘Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications’. (Ed. J. S. Levine) pp. 209–216. (The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA)

Raffuse SM, Craig KJ, Larkin NK, Strand TT, Sullivan DC, Wheeler NJM, Solomon R (2012) An evaluation of modeled plume injection height with satellite-derived observed plume height. Atmosphere 3, 103–123.
An evaluation of modeled plume injection height with satellite-derived observed plume height.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Reid JS, Koppmann R, Eck TF, Eleuterio DP (2005) A review of biomass burning emissions part II: intensive physical properties of biomass burning particles. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5, 799–825.
A review of biomass burning emissions part II: intensive physical properties of biomass burning particles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Reid CE, Brauer M, Johnston FH, Jerrett M, Balmes JR, Elliott CT (2016) Critical review of health impacts of wildfire smoke exposure Environmental Health Perspectives 124, 1334–1343.
Critical review of health impacts of wildfire smoke exposureCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Saide PE, Peterson DA, da Silva A, Anderson B, Ziemba LD, Diskin G, Sachse G, Hair J, Butler C, Fenn M, Jimenez JL, Campuzano-Jost P, Perring AE, Schwarz JP, Markovic MZ, Russell P, Redemann J, Shinozuka Y, Streets DG, Yan F, Dibb J, Yokelson R, Toon OB, Hyer E, Carmichael GR (2015) Revealing important nocturnal and day-to-day variations in fire smoke emissions through a multiplatform inversion. Geophysical Research Letters 42, 3609–3618.
Revealing important nocturnal and day-to-day variations in fire smoke emissions through a multiplatform inversion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sapkota A, Symons JM, Kleissl J, Wang L, Parlange MB, Ondov J, Breysse PN, Diette GB, Eggleston PA, Buckley TJ (2005) Impact of the 2002 Canadian forest fires on particulate matter air quality in Baltimore City. Environmental Science & Technology 39, 24–32.
Impact of the 2002 Canadian forest fires on particulate matter air quality in Baltimore City.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sastry N (2002) Forest fires, air pollution, and mortality in Southeast Asia. Demography 39, 1–23.
Forest fires, air pollution, and mortality in Southeast Asia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sofiev M, Ermakova T, Vankevich R (2012) Evaluation of the smoke-injection height from wild-land fires using remote-sensing data. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12, 1995–2006.
Evaluation of the smoke-injection height from wild-land fires using remote-sensing data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stein AF, Rolph GD, Draxler RR, Stunder B, Ruminski M (2009) Verification of the NOAA smoke forecasting system: model sensitivity to the injection height. Weather and Forecasting 24, 379–394.
Verification of the NOAA smoke forecasting system: model sensitivity to the injection height.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Teague B, Mcleod R, Pascoe S (2010) 2009 Victorian bushfires Royal Commission final report. Parliament of Victoria. (Melbourne, Vic., Australia)

Tosca MG, Randerson JT, Zender CS, Nelson DL, Diner DJ, Logan JA (2011) Dynamics of fire plumes and smoke clouds associated with peat and deforestation fires in Indonesia. Journal of Geophysical Research – D. Atmospheres 116, D08207
Dynamics of fire plumes and smoke clouds associated with peat and deforestation fires in Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Trentmann J, Luderer G, Winterrath T, Fromm MD, Servranckx R, Textor C, Herzog M, Graf HF, Andreae MO (2006) Modeling of biomass smoke injection into the lower stratosphere by a large forest fire (Part I): reference simulation. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6, 5247–5260.

Urbanski S, Kovalev V, Petkov A, Scalise A, Wold C, Hao WM (2014) Validation of smoke plume rise models using ground-based lidar. Proceedings of the SPIE 9239, 92391S
Validation of smoke plume rise models using ground-based lidar.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Vadrevu KP, Ellicott E, Giglio L, Badarinath KVS, Vermote E, Justice C, Lau WKM (2012) Vegetation fires in the Himalayan region – aerosol load, black carbon emissions and smoke plume heights. Atmospheric Environment 47, 241–251.
Vegetation fires in the Himalayan region – aerosol load, black carbon emissions and smoke plume heights.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Watson P (2011) Fuel load dynamics in NSW vegetation. Part 1: forests and grassy woodlands. Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfire, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.

Williamson GJ, Price OF, Henderson SB, Bowman DMJS (2013) Satellite-based comparison of fire intensity and smoke emissions from prescribed and wildfires in south-eastern Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 121–129.
Satellite-based comparison of fire intensity and smoke emissions from prescribed and wildfires in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williamson G, Bowman D, Price O, Henderson S, Johnston F (2016) Can managing fire regimes reduce the human health impacts of smoke exposure? Environmental Research Letters 11, 125009
Can managing fire regimes reduce the human health impacts of smoke exposure?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yao J, Brauer M, Henderson SB (2014) Evaluation of a wildfire smoke forecasting system as a tool for public health protection. Environmental Health Perspectives 121, 1142–1147.