Spatial scales influence long-term response of herbivores to prescribed burning in a savanna ecosystem
Duncan M. Kimuyu A B F , Ryan L. Sensenig B C , Robert M. Chira D , John M. Githaiga D and Truman P. Young B E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Karatina University, PO Box 1957-10101, Karatina, Kenya.
B Mpala Research Centre, PO Box 555-10400, Nanyuki, Kenya.
C Department of Biological Sciences, Goshen College, Goshen, IN 46526, USA.
D School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
E Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
F Corresponding author. Email: dkimuyu@gmail.com
International Journal of Wildland Fire 26(4) 287-295 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF16152
Submitted: 8 August 2016 Accepted: 16 February 2017 Published: 4 April 2017
Abstract
Both wild and prescribed fire in savanna ecosystems influence habitat use by herbivores by creating or maintaining spatial and temporal heterogeneity in forage quality and vegetation cover. Yet little is known about how spatial scales influence long-term persistence of fire effects. We examined changes over a 6-year period in herbivore preference for experimentally burned patches that varied in spatial extent and grain. Avoidance for the burns by elephants and preference for the burns by impala and Grant’s gazelle decreased significantly. For the rest of the species (zebra, eland, oryx, hartebeest, warthog and hare), there were no significant changes in preference for the burns. Changes in preference for the burned areas depended on the spatial extent and grain of the burn, with intermediate-size (9-ha) burns and large (8-ha) patchy burns being more preferred 6–7 years after fire. Grain, but not the spatial extent of the burned area, influenced changes in grass height. Fire resulted in a delayed reduced tree density irrespective of the spatial scale of the burn. Results of this study indicate that, depending on the scale of fire prescription, the impacts of fire on herbivores may last longer than previous studies suggest.
Additional keywords: dung survey, fire frequency, habitat heterogeneity, Laikipia, patchiness, tree cover.
References
Allred BW, Fuhlendorf SD, Engle DM, Elmore RD (2011) Ungulate preference for burned patches reveals strength of fire–grazing interaction. Ecology and Evolution 1, 132–144.| Ungulate preference for burned patches reveals strength of fire–grazing interaction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Altendorf KB, Laundré JW, López González CA, Brown JS (2001) Assessing effects of predation risk on foraging behavior of mule deer. Journal of Mammalogy 82, 430–439.
| Assessing effects of predation risk on foraging behavior of mule deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Archibald S, Bond WJ, Stock WD, Fairbanks DHK (2005) Shaping the landscape: fire-grazer interactions in an African savanna. Ecological Applications 15, 96–109.
| Shaping the landscape: fire-grazer interactions in an African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Arsenault R, Owen-Smith N (2002) Facilitation versus competition in grazing herbivore assemblages. Oikos 97, 313–318.
| Facilitation versus competition in grazing herbivore assemblages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Augustine DJ (2003) Long-term, livestock-mediated redistribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in an East African savanna. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 137–149.
| Long-term, livestock-mediated redistribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in an East African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Augustine DJ, McNaughton SJ, Frank DA (2003) Feedbacks between soil nutrients and large herbivores in a managed savanna ecosystem. Ecological Applications 13, 1325–1337.
| Feedbacks between soil nutrients and large herbivores in a managed savanna ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Augustine DJ, Veblen KE, Goheen JR, Riginos C, Young TP (2011) Pathways for positive cattle–wildlife interactions in semiarid rangelands. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 632, 55–71.
| Pathways for positive cattle–wildlife interactions in semiarid rangelands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barraquand F, Benhamou S (2008) Animal movements in heterogeneous landscapes: identifying profitable places and homogeneous movement bouts. Ecology 89, 3336–3348.
| Animal movements in heterogeneous landscapes: identifying profitable places and homogeneous movement bouts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Batmanian G, Haridasan M (1985) Primary production and accumulation of nutrients by the ground–layer community of cerrado vegetation of central Brazil. Plant and Soil 88, 437–440.
| Primary production and accumulation of nutrients by the ground–layer community of cerrado vegetation of central Brazil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baxter BJM, Van Staden J (1994) Plant-derived smoke: an effective seed pre-treatment. Plant Growth Regulation 14, 279–282.
| Plant-derived smoke: an effective seed pre-treatment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baxter BJM, Van Staden J, Granger JE, Brown NAC (1994) Plant-derived smoke and smoke extracts stimulate seed germination of the fire-climax grass Themeda triandra. Environmental and Experimental Botany 34, 217–223.
| Plant-derived smoke and smoke extracts stimulate seed germination of the fire-climax grass Themeda triandra.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Benton TG, Vickery JA, Wilson JD (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 182–188.
| Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blake S (2002) Forest buffalo prefer clearings to closed-canopy forest in the primary forest of northern Congo. Oryx 36, 81–86.
| Forest buffalo prefer clearings to closed-canopy forest in the primary forest of northern Congo.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bond WJ (2008) What limits trees in C4 grasslands and savannas? Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 39, 641–659.
| What limits trees in C4 grasslands and savannas?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown NAC, van Staden J (1997) Smoke as a germination cue: a review. Plant Growth Regulation 22, 115–124.
| Smoke as a germination cue: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXmt1yitbw%3D&md5=9b15c971ce972c1ee48221652f679d7dCAS |
Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) ‘Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach’, 2nd edn. (Springer: New York)
Christensen N, Jr (1997) Managing for heterogeneity and complexity on dynamic landscapes. In ‘The ecological basis of conservation’. (Eds STA Pickett, RS Ostfeld, M Shachak, GE Likens) pp. 167–186. (Springer: Florence, KY)
Crosti R, Ladd PG, Dixon KW, Piotto B (2006) Post-fire germination: the effect of smoke on seeds of selected species from the central Mediterranean basin. Forest Ecology and Management 221, 306–312.
| Post-fire germination: the effect of smoke on seeds of selected species from the central Mediterranean basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Daniels MJ (2006) Estimating red deer Cervus elaphus populations: an analysis of variation and cost-effectiveness of counting methods. Mammal Review 36, 235–247.
| Estimating red deer Cervus elaphus populations: an analysis of variation and cost-effectiveness of counting methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
du Toit JT (2003) Large herbivores and savanna heterogeneity. In ‘The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity’, 2nd edn. (Eds JT du Toit, KH Rogers, HC Biggs) pp. 292–309. (Island Press: Washington, DC)
Eby SL, Anderson TM, Mayemba EP, Ritchie ME (2014) The effect of fire on habitat selection of mammalian herbivores: the role of body size and vegetation characteristics. Journal of Animal Ecology 83, 1196–1205.
| The effect of fire on habitat selection of mammalian herbivores: the role of body size and vegetation characteristics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elliott K, Harper C, Collins B (2011) Herbaceous response to type and severity of disturbance. In ‘Sustaining young forest communities’. (Eds C Greenberg, B Collins, F Thompson III) Vol. 21, pp. 97–119. (Springer: New York)
Fahrig L, Baudry J, Brotons L, Burel FG, Crist TO, Fuller RJ, Sirami C, Siriwardena GM, Martin J-L (2011) Functional landscape heterogeneity and animal biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Ecology Letters 14, 101–112.
| Functional landscape heterogeneity and animal biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ferrari S, Cribari-Neto F (2004) Beta regression for modelling rates and proportions. Journal of Applied Statistics 31, 799–815.
| Beta regression for modelling rates and proportions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fraterrigo J, Pearson S, Turner M (2009) Joint effects of habitat configuration and temporal stochasticity on population dynamics. Landscape Ecology 24, 863–877.
| Joint effects of habitat configuration and temporal stochasticity on population dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fuhlendorf SD, Harrell WC, Engle DM, Hamilton RG, Davis CA, Leslie DM (2006) Should heterogeneity be the basis for conservation? Grassland bird response to fire and grazing. Ecological Applications 16, 1706–1716.
| Should heterogeneity be the basis for conservation? Grassland bird response to fire and grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fuller TK (1991) Do pellet counts index white-tailed deer numbers and population change? The Journal of Wildlife Management 55, 393–396.
| Do pellet counts index white-tailed deer numbers and population change?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gordijn P, Ward D (2014) Fire can suppress the development of macrophyllous thickets. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 31, 147–160.
| Fire can suppress the development of macrophyllous thickets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Green DS, Roloff GJ, Heath BR, Holekamp KE (2015) Temporal dynamics of the responses by African mammals to prescribed fire. The Journal of Wildlife Management 79, 235–242.
| Temporal dynamics of the responses by African mammals to prescribed fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Greene L, Hebblewhite M, Stephenson TR (2012) Short-term vegetation response to wildfire in the eastern Sierra Nevada: implications for recovering an endangered ungulate. Journal of Arid Environments 87, 118–128.
| Short-term vegetation response to wildfire in the eastern Sierra Nevada: implications for recovering an endangered ungulate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gureja N, Owen-Smith N (2002) Comparative use of burnt grassland by rare antelope species in a lowveld game ranch, South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 32, 31–38.
Higgins SI, Bond WJ, February EC, Bronn A, Euston-Brown DIW, Enslin B, Govender N, Rademan L, O’Regan S, Potgieter ALF, Scheiter S, Sowry R, Trollope L, Trollope WSW (2007) Effects of four decades of fire manipulation on woody vegetation structure in savanna. Ecology 88, 1119–1125.
| Effects of four decades of fire manipulation on woody vegetation structure in savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holdo RM, Holt RD, Fryxell JM (2009) Grazers, browsers, and fire influence the extent and spatial pattern of tree cover in the Serengeti. Ecological Applications 19, 95–109.
| Grazers, browsers, and fire influence the extent and spatial pattern of tree cover in the Serengeti.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley J (1991) Seed germination and life history syndromes in the California chaparral. Botanical Review 57, 81–116.
| Seed germination and life history syndromes in the California chaparral.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kisel Y, McInnes L, Toomey NH, Orme CDL (2011) How diversification rates and diversity limits combine to create large-scale species–area relationships. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 366, 2514–2525.
| How diversification rates and diversity limits combine to create large-scale species–area relationships.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Klop E, van Goethem J, de Iongh HH (2007) Resource selection by grazing herbivores on post-fire regrowth in a West African woodland savanna. Wildlife Research 34, 77–83.
| Resource selection by grazing herbivores on post-fire regrowth in a West African woodland savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Laclau J-P, Sama-Poumba W, Nzila JDD, Bouillet J-P, Ranger J (2002) Biomass and nutrient dynamics in a littoral savanna subjected to annual fires in Congo. Acta Oecologica 23, 41–50.
| Biomass and nutrient dynamics in a littoral savanna subjected to annual fires in Congo.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lunt N, Bowkett AE, Plowman AB (2007) Implications of assumption violation in density estimates of antelope from dung-heap counts: a case study on grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 45, 382–389.
| Implications of assumption violation in density estimates of antelope from dung-heap counts: a case study on grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) in Zimbabwe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marion GM, Moreno JM, Oechel WC (1991) Fire severity, ash deposition, and clipping effects on soil nutrients in chaparral. Soil Science Society of America Journal 55, 235–240.
| Fire severity, ash deposition, and clipping effects on soil nutrients in chaparral.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXitVKjs74%3D&md5=b7fadbdc96a11084f22b19fee7b62700CAS |
Marques FFC, Buckland ST, Goffin D, Dixon CE, Borchers DL, Mayle BA, Peace AJ (2001) Estimating deer abundance from line transect surveys of dung: sika deer in southern Scotland. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 349–363.
| Estimating deer abundance from line transect surveys of dung: sika deer in southern Scotland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miyashita T, Chishiki Y, Takagi S (2012) Landscape heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales enhances spider species richness in an agricultural landscape. Population Ecology 54, 573–581.
| Landscape heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales enhances spider species richness in an agricultural landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moe SR, Rutina LP, Hytteborn H, du Toit JT (2009) What controls woodland regeneration after elephants have killed the big trees? Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 223–230.
| What controls woodland regeneration after elephants have killed the big trees?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moe SR, Wegge P (1997) The effects of cutting and burning on grass quality and axis deer (Axis axis) use of grassland in lowland Nepal Journal of Tropical Ecology 13, 279–292.
| The effects of cutting and burning on grass quality and axis deer (Axis axis) use of grassland in lowland NepalCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morales JM, Ellner SP (2002) Scaling up animal movements in heterogeneous landscapes: the importance of behavior. Ecology 83, 2240–2247.
| Scaling up animal movements in heterogeneous landscapes: the importance of behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morgan JW (1998) Importance of canopy gaps for recruitment of some forbs in Themeda triandra-dominated grasslands in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 46, 609–627.
| Importance of canopy gaps for recruitment of some forbs in Themeda triandra-dominated grasslands in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nchanji AC, Plumptre AJ (2001) Seasonality in elephant dung decay and implications for censusing and population monitoring in south-western Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology 39, 24–32.
| Seasonality in elephant dung decay and implications for censusing and population monitoring in south-western Cameroon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Neff JC, Harden JW, Gleixner G (2005) Fire effects on soil organic matter content, composition, and nutrients in boreal interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 2178–2187.
| Fire effects on soil organic matter content, composition, and nutrients in boreal interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmsFejsg%3D%3D&md5=3e5b576f3ae22b4c241af669a7089cc4CAS |
Novellie P, Kraaij T (2010) Evaluation of Themeda triandra as an indicator for monitoring the effects of grazing and fire in the Bontebok National Park. Koedoe 52, 1–5.
| Evaluation of Themeda triandra as an indicator for monitoring the effects of grazing and fire in the Bontebok National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Okello BD, Young TP, Riginos C, Kelly D, O’Connor TG (2008) Short-term survival and long-term mortality of Acacia drepanolobium after a controlled burn. African Journal of Ecology 46, 395–401.
| Short-term survival and long-term mortality of Acacia drepanolobium after a controlled burn.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parr CL, Brockett BH (1999) Patch-mosaic burning: a new paradigm for savanna fire management in protected areas? Koedoe 42, 117–130.
| Patch-mosaic burning: a new paradigm for savanna fire management in protected areas?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pavlů V, Hejcman M, Pavlů L, Gaisler J, Nežerková P (2006) Effect of continuous grazing on forage quality, quantity and animal performance. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 113, 349–355.
| Effect of continuous grazing on forage quality, quantity and animal performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Porensky L, Veblen K (2012) Grasses and browsers reinforce landscape heterogeneity by excluding trees from ecosystem hotspots. Oecologia 168, 749–759.
| Grasses and browsers reinforce landscape heterogeneity by excluding trees from ecosystem hotspots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Porensky L, Wittman S, Riginos C, Young TP (2013) Herbivory and drought interact to enhance spatial patterning and diversity in a savanna understory. Oecologia 173, 591–602.
| Herbivory and drought interact to enhance spatial patterning and diversity in a savanna understory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pourreza M, Hosseini S, Sinegani A, Matinizadeh M, Alavai S (2014) Herbaceous species diversity in relation to fire severity in Zagros oak forests, Iran. Journal of Forestry Research 25, 113–120.
| Herbaceous species diversity in relation to fire severity in Zagros oak forests, Iran.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXjt1anu7s%3D&md5=8d5da1631b9e896997fe7fbf301ddaa8CAS |
Pringle RM, Kimuyu DM, Sensenig RL, Palmer TM, Riginos C, Veblen KE, Young TP (2015) Synergistic effects of fire and elephants on arboreal animals in an African savanna. Journal of Animal Ecology 84, 1637–1645.
| Synergistic effects of fire and elephants on arboreal animals in an African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Development Core Team (2009) ‘R: a language and environment for statistical computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria) Available at http://www.R-project.org/ [Verified 21 February 2017)
Rasmussen HB, Kahindi O, Vollrath F, Douglas-Hamilton I (2005) Estimating elephant densities from wells and droppings in dried-out riverbeds. African Journal of Ecology 43, 312–319.
| Estimating elephant densities from wells and droppings in dried-out riverbeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Reinhardt ED, Dickinson MB (2010) First-order fire effects models for land management: overview and issues. Fire Ecology 6, 131–150.
| First-order fire effects models for land management: overview and issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Riginos C (2015) Climate and the landscape of fear in an African savanna. Journal of Animal Ecology 84, 124–133.
| Climate and the landscape of fear in an African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Riginos C, Porensky LM, Veblen KE, Odadi W, Sensenig RL, Kimuyu DM, Keesing F, Wilkerson ML, Young TP (2012) Lessons on the relationship between livestock husbandry and biodiversity from the Kenya Long-term Exclosure Experiment (KLEE). Pastoralism: Research. Policy and Practice 2, 1–22.
| Lessons on the relationship between livestock husbandry and biodiversity from the Kenya Long-term Exclosure Experiment (KLEE).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ritchie M (1998) Scale-dependent foraging and patch choice in fractal environments. Evolutionary Ecology 12, 309–330.
| Scale-dependent foraging and patch choice in fractal environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rivero K, Rumiz D, Taber A (2004) Estimating brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira and M. americana) abundance by dung pellet counts and other indices in seasonal Chiquitano forest habitats of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. European Journal of Wildlife Research 50, 161–167.
| Estimating brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira and M. americana) abundance by dung pellet counts and other indices in seasonal Chiquitano forest habitats of Santa Cruz, Bolivia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ryan K, Elliot WJ (2005) Fire effects and soil erosion models. In ‘Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on soils and water’. (Eds DG Neary, KC Ryan, LF DeBano) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-42-Vol. 4, pp. 171–177. (Ogden, UT)
Sankaran M, Hanan NP, Scholes RJ, Ratnam J, Augustine DJ, Cade BS, Gignoux J, Higgins SI, Le Roux X, Ludwig F, Ardo J, Banyikwa F, Bronn A, Bucini G, Caylor KK, Coughenour MB, Diouf A, Ekaya W, Feral CJ, February EC, Frost PGH, Hiernaux P, Hrabar H, Metzger KL, Prins HHT, Ringrose S, Sea W, Tews J, Worden J, Zambatis N (2005) Determinants of woody cover in African savannas. Nature 438, 846–849.
| Determinants of woody cover in African savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXht1ynsrrP&md5=bfea1b4708fa049f4680ffcac5c618ceCAS |
Savadogo P, Tiveau D, Sawadogo L, Tigabu M (2007) ‘Herbaceous species responses to long-term effects of prescribed fire, grazing and selective tree cutting in the savanna–woodlands of West Africa.’ (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences: Umea, Sweden)
Sensenig RL (2007) Spatial ecology of fire in an East African savanna: effects of burn size and patchiness on the foraging ecology of herbivores of varying body size. PhD dissertation, University of California, Davis.
Sensenig RL, Demment MW, Laca EA (2010) Allometric scaling predicts preferences for burned patches in a guild of East African grazers. Ecology 91, 2898–2907.
| Allometric scaling predicts preferences for burned patches in a guild of East African grazers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smithson M, Verkuilen J (2006) A better lemon squeezer? Maximum-likelihood regression with beta-distributed dependent variables. Psychological Methods 11, 54–71.
| A better lemon squeezer? Maximum-likelihood regression with beta-distributed dependent variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Staver AC, Bond WJ, Stock WD, van Rensburg SJ, Waldram MS (2009) Browsing and fire interact to suppress tree density in an African savanna. Ecological Applications 19, 1909–1919.
| Browsing and fire interact to suppress tree density in an African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner M, Chapin FS, III (2005) Causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity in ecosystem function. In ‘Ecosystem function in heterogeneous landscapes’. (Eds G Lovett, M Turner, C Jones, K Weathers) pp. 9–30. (Springer: New York)
Valeix M, Loveridge AJ, Chamaillé-Jammes S, Davidson Z, Murindagomo F, Fritz H, Macdonald DW (2009) Behavioral adjustments of African herbivores to predation risk by lions: Spatiotemporal variations influence habitat use. Ecology 90, 23–30.
Van de Vijver CADM, Poot P, Prins HHT (1999) Causes of increased nutrient concentrations in post-fire regrowth in an East African savanna. Plant and Soil 214, 173–185.
| Causes of increased nutrient concentrations in post-fire regrowth in an East African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXptlyqsw%3D%3D&md5=c64d9baee8e0e01058fe69605a49e60dCAS |
Van Langevelde F, van de Vijver C, Kumar L, van de Koppel J, de Ridder N, van Andel J, Skidmore AK, Hearne JW, Stroosnijder L, Bond WJ, Prins HHT, Rietkerk M (2003) Effects of fire and herbivory on the stability of savanna ecosystems. Ecology 84, 337–350.
| Effects of fire and herbivory on the stability of savanna ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vernes K (1999) Pellet counts to estimate density of a rainforest kangaroo. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 991–996.
Wahungu GM, Mureu LK, Macharia PG (2010) Variability in survival and mortality of Acacia drepanolobium Sjøstedt following prescribed burning at Olpejeta Conservancy, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 48, 744–750.
Wahungu GM, Mureu LK, Kimuyu DM, Birkett A, Macharia PG, Burton J (2011) Survival, recruitment and dynamics of Acacia drepanolobium Sjøstedt seedlings at Olpejeta Conservancy, Kenya, between 1999 and 2009. African Journal of Ecology 49, 227–233.
| Survival, recruitment and dynamics of Acacia drepanolobium Sjøstedt seedlings at Olpejeta Conservancy, Kenya, between 1999 and 2009.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wiens J (1997) The emerging role of patchiness in conservation biology. In ‘The ecological basis of conservation’. (Eds STA Pickett, RS Ostfeld, M Shachak, GE Likens) pp. 93–107. (Springer: Florence, KY)
Wiens J (2002) Central concepts and issues of landscape ecology. In ‘Applying landscape ecology in biological conservation’. (Ed. K Gutzwiller) pp. 3–21. (Springer: New York)
Wilsey BJ (1996) Variation in use of green flushes following burns among African ungulate species: the importance of body size. African Journal of Ecology 34, 32–38.
| Variation in use of green flushes following burns among African ungulate species: the importance of body size.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Young TP, Okello BD, Kinyua D, Palmer TM (1997) KLEE: a long‐term multi‐species herbivore exclusion experiment in Laikipia, Kenya. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 14, 94–102.
| KLEE: a long‐term multi‐species herbivore exclusion experiment in Laikipia, Kenya.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Young TP, Palmer TM, Gadd ME (2005) Competition and compensation among cattle, zebras, and elephants in a semi-arid savanna in Laikipia, Kenya. Biological Conservation 122, 351–359.
| Competition and compensation among cattle, zebras, and elephants in a semi-arid savanna in Laikipia, Kenya.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zavala MA, Holdo RM (2005) Delayed effects of fire on habitat use by large herbivores in Acacia drepanolobium savanna. African Journal of Ecology 43, 155–157.
| Delayed effects of fire on habitat use by large herbivores in Acacia drepanolobium savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
