Emissions of air pollutants by Canadian wildfires from 2000 to 2004
David Lavoué A B E and Brian J. Stocks C D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A DL Modeling and Research, 22 Lady Belle Crescent, Brampton, ON, L6R 3B6, Canada.
B Environment Canada, Atmospheric Science and Technology Branch, Air Quality Research Division, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, ON, M3H 5T4, Canada.
C Canadian Forest Service, Great Lakes Forestry Centre, 1219 Queen Street East, Sault Ste Marie, ON, P6A 2E5, Canada.
D Present address: BJ Stocks Wildfire Investigations Ltd, 128 Chambers Avenue, Sault Ste Marie, ON, P6A 4V4, Canada.
E Corresponding author. Email: david-lavoue@rogers.com
International Journal of Wildland Fire 20(1) 17-34 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF08114
Submitted: 7 July 2008 Accepted: 10 May 2010 Published: 14 February 2011
Abstract
A wildfire emission model, based on the Canadian Forest Fire Behaviour Prediction System and the Canadian weather forecast Global Environmental Multiscale model, was applied to forest fires that occurred in Canada between 2000 and 2004. Emissions of 21 chemical species and injection heights were calculated hourly for a regular 0.4° grid, with injection heights corresponding to the maximum altitude reached by a convective plume over a fire every hour. Wildfire emissions were compared with anthropogenic fossil fuel combustion sources at provincial, territorial and national levels. The 2002 fire season in central Quebec accounted for ~30, 60 and 80% of the annual primary greenhouse gases, carbon monoxide and black carbon emissions respectively for that province. In 2003, fires represented 60 and 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in Manitoba and British Columbia respectively. During the 2004 fire season in north-western Canada, when area burned was above average, fires were responsible for almost all greenhouse gas emissions occurring in the sparsely populated Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories. On average, between 2000 and 2004, fires contributed 10, 30 and 40% of Canadian annual greenhouse gases, CO and black carbon emissions respectively. This methodology for calculating wildland fire emissions is also applicable to other regions of the world.
References
Amiro BD, Todd JB, Wotton BM, Logan KA, Flannigan MD, Stocks BJ, Mason JA, Martell DL, Hirsch KG (2001) Direct carbon emissions from Canadian forest fires, 1959 to 1999. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31, 512–525.| Direct carbon emissions from Canadian forest fires, 1959 to 1999.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjtVKrs7Y%3D&md5=94fdfdbbef2f7ed0686f2813e9fc5ac2CAS |
Anderson KR, Englefied P, Little J (2007) Operational forest fire-growth predictions for Canada. In ‘Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology’, 23–27 October 2007, Bar Harbor, ME. (American Meteorological Society: Boston, MA)
Andreae MO (2004) Assessment of global emissions from vegetation fires. International Forest Fire News 31, 112–121..
Andreae MO, Merlet P (2001) Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15, 955–966.
| Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjtV2iuw%3D%3D&md5=3c9f40e27e02b6b35048a6bccb75012fCAS |
Andreae MO, Atlas E, Harris GW, Helas G, de Kock A, Koppman R, Maenhaut W, Manö S, Pollock WH, Rudolph J, Scharffe D, Schebeske G, Welling M (1996) Methyl halide emissions from savanna fires in southern Africa. Journal of Geophysical Research 101, 23 603–23 613.
| Methyl halide emissions from savanna fires in southern Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XntFykt7g%3D&md5=685da24712e3bd95eacdfbb9b0a9834cCAS |
Battye W, Battye R (2002) Development of emissions inventory methods for wildland fire. EC/R Incorporated. EPA contract No. 68-D-98-046, work assignment No. 5-03. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch13/related/firerept.pdf [Verified 24 March 2009]
Bélair S, Méthot A, Mailhot J, Bilodeau B, Patoine A, Pellerin G, Côté J (2000) Operational implementation of the Fritsch–Chappell convective scheme in the 24-km Canadian regional model. Weather and Forecasting 15, 257–274.
| Operational implementation of the Fritsch–Chappell convective scheme in the 24-km Canadian regional model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chýlek P, Ramaswamy V, Srivastava V (1983) Albedo of soot-contaminated snow. Journal of Geophysical Research 88, 10 837–10 843.
| Albedo of soot-contaminated snow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chýlek P, Srivastava V, Cahenzli L, Pinnick RG, Dod RL, Novakov T, Cook TL, Hinds BD (1987) Aerosol and graphitic carbon content of snow. Journal of Geophysical Research 92, 9801–9809.
| Aerosol and graphitic carbon content of snow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cofer WR, III, Winstead EL, Stocks BJ, Overbay LW, Goldammer JG, Cahoon DR, Levine JS (1996) Emissions from boreal forest fires: are the atmospheric impacts underestimated? In ‘Biomass Burning and Global Change’. pp. 834–839. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Cofer WR, Winstead EL, Stocks BJ, Goldammer JG, Cahoon DR (1998) Crown fire emissions of CO2, CO, H2, CH4, and TNMHC from a dense jack pine boreal forest fire. Geophysical Research Letters 25, 3919–3922.
| Crown fire emissions of CO2, CO, H2, CH4, and TNMHC from a dense jack pine boreal forest fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXnsVKks74%3D&md5=2ee1db32decb26b33f9732c9ed405123CAS |
Colarco PR, Schoeberl MR, Doddridge BG, Marufu LT, Torres O, Welton EJ (2004) Transport of smoke from Canadian forest fires to the surface near Washington, DC: injection height, entrainment, and optical properties. Journal of Geophysical Research 109, D06203
| Transport of smoke from Canadian forest fires to the surface near Washington, DC: injection height, entrainment, and optical properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Côté J, Gravel S, Méthot A, Patoine A, Roch M, Staniforth A (1998a) The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model: Part I – Design considerations and formulation. Monthly Weather Review 126, 1373–1395.
| The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model: Part I – Design considerations and formulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Côté J, Desmarais J-G, Gravel S, Méthot A, Patoine A, Roch M, Staniforth A (1998b) The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model: Part II – results. Monthly Weather Review 126, 1397–1418.
| The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model: Part II – results.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Groot WJ, Landry R, Kurz WA, Anderson KR, Englefield P, Fraser RH, Hall RJ, Banfield E, Raymond DA, Decker V, Lynham TJ, Pritchard JM (2007) Estimating direct carbon emissions from Canadian wildland fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 593–606.
| Estimating direct carbon emissions from Canadian wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXht1eqsrjO&md5=626379800db3e5027cd66e6b607310eaCAS |
DeBell LJ, Talbot RW, Dibb JE, Munger JW, Fischer EV, Frolking SE (2004) A major regional air pollution event in the northeastern United States caused by extensive forest fires in Quebec, Canada. Journal of Geophysical Research 109, D19305
| A major regional air pollution event in the northeastern United States caused by extensive forest fires in Quebec, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dokas I, Statheropoulos M, Karma S (2007) Integration of field chemical data in initial risk assessment of forest fire smoke. The Science of the Total Environment 376, 72–85.
| Integration of field chemical data in initial risk assessment of forest fire smoke.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjt1SgtrY%3D&md5=db58798a0eaa010b339fbf931e17d701CAS | 17321566PubMed |
Ferguson SA, Sandberg DV, Ottmar R (2000) Modelling the effect of land-use changes on global biomass emissions. In ‘Biomass Burning and its Inter-relationships with the Climate System’. pp. 33–50. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, the Netherlands)
Flannigan MD, Logan KA, Amiro BD, Skinner WR, Stocks BJ (2005) Future area burned in Canada. Climatic Change 72, 1–16.
| Future area burned in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVyisrzM&md5=9036cc153cf5fd1c42da5d3a5ad13ff1CAS |
Forestry Canada Fire Danger Group (1992) Development and structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Behaviour Prediction System. Forestry Canada, Information Report ST-X-3. (Ottawa, ON)
Forster C, Wandinger U, Wotawa G, James P, Mattis I, Althausen D, Simmonds P, O’Doherty S, Jennings SG, Kleefeld C, Schneider J, Trickl T, Kreipl S, Jaeger H, Stohl A (2001) Transport of boreal forest fire emissions from Canada to Europe. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 22 887–22 906.
| Transport of boreal forest fire emissions from Canada to Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXot1Cku7k%3D&md5=be833657c9383b68db19071e0495fe9cCAS |
Fraser RH, Li Z, Cihlar J (2000) Hotspots and NDVI differencing synergy (HANDS): a new technique for burned area mapping over boreal forest. Remote Sensing of Environment 74, 362–376.
| Hotspots and NDVI differencing synergy (HANDS): a new technique for burned area mapping over boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Freitas SR, Longo KM, Andreae MO (2006) Impact of including the plume rise of vegetation fires in numerical simulations of associated atmospheric pollutants. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L17808
| Impact of including the plume rise of vegetation fires in numerical simulations of associated atmospheric pollutants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Friedli HR, Radke LF, Lu JY, Banic CM, Leaitch WR, MacPherson JI (2003) Mercury emissions from burning of biomass from temperate North American forests: laboratory and airborne measurements. Atmospheric Environment 37, 253–267.
| Mercury emissions from burning of biomass from temperate North American forests: laboratory and airborne measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XpsV2ru7w%3D&md5=c11b4208fbeef0e8746f18f8cf5d213cCAS |
Fromm M, Bevilacqua R, Servranckx R, Rosen J, Thayer JP, Herman J, Larko D (2005) Pyro-cumulonimbus injection of smoke to the stratosphere: observations and impact of a superblowup in north-western Canada on 3–4 August 1998. Journal of Geophysical Research 110, D08205
| Pyro-cumulonimbus injection of smoke to the stratosphere: observations and impact of a superblowup in north-western Canada on 3–4 August 1998.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fromm M, Torres O, Diner D, Lindsey D, Vant Hull B, Servranckx R, Shettle EP, Li Z (2008a) Stratospheric impact of the Chisholm pyrocumulonimbus eruption: 1. Earth-viewing satellite perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, D08202
| Stratospheric impact of the Chisholm pyrocumulonimbus eruption: 1. Earth-viewing satellite perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fromm M, Shettle EP, Fricke KH, Ritter C, Trickl T, Giehl H, Gerding M, Barnes JE, O’Neill M, Massie ST, Blum U, McDermid IS, Leblanc T, Deshler T (2008b) Stratospheric impact of the Chisholm pyrocumulonimbus eruption: 2. Vertical profile perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, D08203
| Stratospheric impact of the Chisholm pyrocumulonimbus eruption: 2. Vertical profile perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Giglio L, van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Collatz GJ, Kasibhatla P (2006) Global estimation of burned area using MODIS active fire observations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6, 957–974.
| Global estimation of burned area using MODIS active fire observations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xksleqtbg%3D&md5=14c26f8104eb482b42732c154dd3cb09CAS |
Gillett NP, Weaver AJ, Zwiers FW, Flannigan MD (2004) Detecting the effect of climate change on Canadian forest fires. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L18211
| Detecting the effect of climate change on Canadian forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gong W, Dastoor AP, Bouchet VS, Gong SL, Makar PA, Moran MD, Pabla B, Ménard S, Crevier LP, Cousineau S, Venkatesh S (2006) Cloud processing of gases and aerosols in a regional air quality model (AURAMS). Atmospheric Research 82, 248–275.
| Cloud processing of gases and aerosols in a regional air quality model (AURAMS).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtVCrsb7J&md5=67ec425dba4b875f22a627d666c81f62CAS |
Hansen J, Nazarenko L (2004) Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, 423–428.
| Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmsFGhsA%3D%3D&md5=01029ea79e4839679e350902a427cae7CAS | 14699053PubMed |
Hobbs PV, Reid JS, Herring JA, Nance JD, Weiss RE, Ross JL, Hegg DA, Ottmar RD, Liousse C (1996) Particle and trace-gas measurements in the smoke from prescribed burns of forest products in the Pacific Northwest. In ‘Biomass Burning and Global Change’. pp. 697–715. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Hodzic A, Madronich S, Bohn B, Massie S, Menut L, Wiedinmyer C (2007) Wildfire particulate matter in Europe during summer 2003: mesoscale modeling of smoke emissions, transport and radiative effects. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7, 4043–4064.
| Wildfire particulate matter in Europe during summer 2003: mesoscale modeling of smoke emissions, transport and radiative effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtVWmsrrL&md5=0f4c9eb3f44d2e1f578691a389d5b806CAS |
Hsu NS, Herman JR, Gleason JF, Torres O, Seftor CJ (1999) Satellite detection of smoke aerosols over a snow/ice surface by TOMS. Geophysical Research Letters 26, 1165–1168.
| Satellite detection of smoke aerosols over a snow/ice surface by TOMS.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, Turetsky MR (2006) Recent changes in the fire regime across the North American boreal region-spatial and temporal patterns of burning across Canada and Alaska. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L09703
| Recent changes in the fire regime across the North American boreal region-spatial and temporal patterns of burning across Canada and Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lavoué D, Liousse C, Cachier H, Stocks BJ, Goldammer JG (2000) Modeling of carbonaceous particles emitted by boreal and temperate wildfires at northern latitudes. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 26 871–26 890.
| Modeling of carbonaceous particles emitted by boreal and temperate wildfires at northern latitudes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lavoué D, Gong SL, Stocks BJ (2007) Modelling emissions from Canadian wildfires: a case study of the 2002 Quebec forest fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 649–663.
| Modelling emissions from Canadian wildfires: a case study of the 2002 Quebec forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Legrand M, De Angelis M, Cachier H, Gaudichet A (1995) Boreal biomass burning over the last 80 years recorded in a Summit – Greenland ice core. In ‘Ice Core Studies of Global Biogeochemical Cycles’. pp. 347–360. (Springer-Verlag: New York)
Manins PC (1985) Cloud heights and stratospheric injections resulting from a thermonuclear war. Atmospheric Environment 19, 1245–1255.
| Cloud heights and stratospheric injections resulting from a thermonuclear war.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mazurek MA, Cofer WR, III, Levine JS (1991) Carbonaceous aerosols from prescribed burning of a boreal forest ecosystem. In ‘Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic and Biospheric Implications’. pp. 258–263. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Mazzoni D, Logan JA, Diner D, Kahn R, Tong L, Li Q (2007) A data-mining approach to associating MSIR smoke plume heights with MODIS fire measurements. Remote Sensing of Environment 107, 138–148.
| A data-mining approach to associating MSIR smoke plume heights with MODIS fire measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McConnell JR, Edwards R, Kok GL, Flanner MG, Zender CS, Saltzman ES, Banta JR, Pasteris DR, Carter MM, Kahl JDW (2007) 20th-century industrial black carbon emissions altered Arctic climate forcing. Science 317, 1381–1384.
| 20th-century industrial black carbon emissions altered Arctic climate forcing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXpvFWmu78%3D&md5=9d50526f7a8bb2cb47af56544f9d0eecCAS | 17690261PubMed |
Moore D, Copes R, Fisk R, Joy R, Chan K, Brauer M (2006) Population health effects of air quality changes due to forest fires in British Columbia in 2003. Canadian Journal of Public Health 97, 105–108..
Mühle J, Lueker TJ, Su Y, Miller BR, Prather KA, Weiss RF (2007) Trace gas and particulate emissions from the 2003 southern California wildfires. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, D03307
| Trace gas and particulate emissions from the 2003 southern California wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Naeher LP, Brauer M, Lipsett M, Zelikoff JT, Simpson CD, Koenig JQ, Smith KR (2007) Woodsmoke health effects: a review. Inhalation Toxicology 19, 67–106.
| Woodsmoke health effects: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjsVSjurk%3D&md5=ba3e220fe10358c42828b5cc7b6aae04CAS | 17127644PubMed |
Nimchuk N (1983) Wildfire behavior associated with upper ridge breakdown. Alberta Energy and Natural Resources, Forest Service, Alberta ENR Report No. T/50. (Edmonton, AB)
O’Neill NT, Campanelli M, Lupu A, Thulasiraman S, Reid JS, Aubé M, Neary L, Kaminski JW, McConnell JC (2006) Evaluation of the GEM-AQ air quality model during the Quebec smoke event of 2002: analysis of extensive and intensive optical disparities. Atmospheric Environment 40, 3737–3749.
| Evaluation of the GEM-AQ air quality model during the Quebec smoke event of 2002: analysis of extensive and intensive optical disparities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XltVyhtbg%3D&md5=920a8228238a99e60653402c72f4245eCAS |
Patterson EM, McMahon CK, Ward DE (1986) Absorption properties and graphitic carbon emission factors of forest fire aerosols. Geophysical Research Letters 13, 129–132.
| Absorption properties and graphitic carbon emission factors of forest fire aerosols.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penner JE, Andreae M, Annegarn H, Barrie L, Feichter J, Hegg D, Jayaraman A, Leaitch R, Murphy D, Nganga J, Pitari G (2001) Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects. In ‘Climate Change 2001: the Scientific Basis, Report to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change from the Scientific Assessment Working Group (WGI)’. pp. 289–416. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Pfister G, Hess PG, Emmons LK, Lamarque J-F, Wiedinmyer C, Edwards DP, Pétron G, Gille JC, Sachse GW (2005) Quantifying CO emissions from the 2004 Alaskan wildfires using MOPITT CO data. Geophysical Research Letters 32, L11809
| Quantifying CO emissions from the 2004 Alaskan wildfires using MOPITT CO data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Phuleria HC, Fine PM, Zhu Y, Sioutas C (2005) Air quality impacts of the October 2003 southern California wildfires. Journal of Geophysical Research 110, D07S20
| Air quality impacts of the October 2003 southern California wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Reid JS, Koppmann R, Eck TF, Eleuterio DP (2005) A review of biomass burning emissions part II: intensive physical properties of biomass burning particles. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5, 799–825.
| A review of biomass burning emissions part II: intensive physical properties of biomass burning particles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXktlyrt7s%3D&md5=bc323f535b080aee570290e2d42530fcCAS |
Rousseau J, Lavoué D (2005) Integration of real-time PM2.5 emission rates from forest fires with a dynamic model in order to simulate wildfires in CHRONOS to improve the air quality forecast. In ‘Proceedings of the 39th Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society Congress’, 31 May–3 June 2005, Vancouver, BC. (Ed. R Dunkley) (Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society) Available at http://www.cmos2005.ubc.ca/authorlist.html [Verified 24 March 2009]
Seiler W, Crutzen PJ (1980) Estimates of gross and net fluxes of carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere from biomass burning. Climatic Change 2, 207–247.
| Estimates of gross and net fluxes of carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere from biomass burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL3cXlsFelt7c%3D&md5=5e901454c2dca24c539e3874bbadbf8bCAS |
Sillanpää M, Saarikoski S, Hillamo R, Pennanen A, Makkonen U, Spolnik Z, Van Grieken R, Koskentalo T, Salonen RO (2005) Chemical composition, mass size distribution and source analysis of long-range transported wildfire smokes in Helsinki. The Science of the Total Environment 350, 119–135.
| Chemical composition, mass size distribution and source analysis of long-range transported wildfire smokes in Helsinki.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16227078PubMed |
Skinner WR, Stocks BJ, Martell DL, Bonsal B, Shabbar A (2000) The relationship between area burned by wildland fire in Canada and circulation anomalies in the mid-troposphere. In ‘Biomass Burning and its Inter-relationships with the Climate System’. pp. 101–125. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, the Netherlands)
Spichtinger N, Wenig M, James P, Wagner T, Platt U, Stohl A (2001) Satellite detection of a continental-scale plume of nitrogen oxides from boreal forest fires. Geophysical Research Letters 28, 4579–4582.
| Satellite detection of a continental-scale plume of nitrogen oxides from boreal forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XlvFCksg%3D%3D&md5=5e64f7b62cf741e8625a445ee1b1b7ccCAS |
Stocks BJ, Fosberg MA, Lynham TJ, Mearns L, Wotton BM, Yang Q, Zin JZ, Lawrence K, Hartley GR, Mason JA, McKenney DW (1998) Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests. Climatic Change 38, 1–13.
| Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stocks BJ, Mason JA, Todd JB, Bosch EM, Wotton BM, Amiro BD, Flannigan MD, Hirsch KG, Logan KA, Martell DL, Skinner WR (2003) Large forest fires in Canada, 1959–1997. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 8149
| Large forest fires in Canada, 1959–1997.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stohl A, Andrews E, Burkhart JF, Forster C, Herber A, Hoch SW, Kowal D, Lunder C, Mefford T, Ogren JA, Sharma S, Spichtinger N, Stebel K, Stone RS, Ström J, Tørseth K, Wehrli C, Yttri KE (2006) Pan-Arctic enhancements of light-absorbing aerosol concentrations due to North American boreal forest fire during summer 2004. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, D22214
| Pan-Arctic enhancements of light-absorbing aerosol concentrations due to North American boreal forest fire during summer 2004.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Strawbridge KB, Thulasiraman S, O’Neill NT, McKendry IG (2006) LIDAR and sunphotometry on the long-range transport of smoke and dust events. In ‘Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering, Volume 6367’, 11–14 September 2006, Stockholm, Sweden. (SPIE: Bellingham, WA)
Susott RD, Ward DE, Babitt RE, Latham DJ (1991) The measurement of trace emissions and combustion characteristics for a mass fire. In ‘Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic and Biospheric Implications’. pp. 245–257. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Tarnocai C, Kettler IM, Lacelle B (2002) ‘Peatlands of Canada Database.’ Geological Survey of Canada. (Natural Resources Canada: Ottawa, ON)
Taylor SW, Sherman KL (1996) Biomass consumption and smoke emissions from contemporary and prehistoric wildland fires in British Columbia. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, FRDA Report 249. (Victoria, BC)
Taylor SW, Pike RG, Alexander ME (1997) Field Guide to the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction (FBP) System. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, Special Report 11. (Edmonton, AB)
Turetsky MR, Amiro BD, Bhatti JS (2004) Peatland burning and its relationship to fire weather in western Canada. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18,
| Peatland burning and its relationship to fire weather in western Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhs1Cgsbw%3D&md5=068a14507a6f0d40d74326aceb703d2fCAS |
Turetsky MR, Harden JW, Friedli HR, Flannigan M, Radke L, Crock J, Payne N (2006) Wildfires threaten mercury stocks in northern soils. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L16403
| Wildfires threaten mercury stocks in northern soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turquety S, Logan JA, Jacob DJ, Hudman RC, Yan Leung F, Heald CL, Yantosca RM, Wu S, Emmons LK, Edwards DP, Sachse GW (2007) Inventory of boreal fire emissions for North America in 2004: importance of peat burning and pyroconvective injection. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, D12S03
| Inventory of boreal fire emissions for North America in 2004: importance of peat burning and pyroconvective injection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Collatz GJ, Kasibhatla PS, Arellano AF (2006) Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6, 3423–3441.
| Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtV2hs7nI&md5=f6e40bcb9db480046ba19868ca26510fCAS |
Vanderlei Martins J, Artaxo P, Hobbs PV, Liousse C, Cachier H, Kaufman Y, Plana-Fattori A (1996) Particle size distributions, elemental compositions, carbon measurements, and optical properties of smoke from biomass burning in the Pacific Northwest of the Unites States. In ‘Biomass Burning and Global Change’. pp. 716–732. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Ward D, Hardy C (1988) Organic and elemental profiles for smoke from prescribed fires. In ‘Receptor Models in Air Resources Management: Transactions of an International Specialty Conference of the Air and Waste Management Association’, February 1988, San Francisco, CA. (Ed. JG Watson) pp. 299–321. (Air and Waste Management Association: Pittsburgh, PA)
Wotton BM, Flannigan MD (1993) Length of the fire season in a changing climate. Forestry Chronicle 69, 187–192..
Wotton BM, Martell DL, Logan KA (2003) Climate change and people-caused fire occurrence in Ontario. Climatic Change 60, 275–295.
| Climate change and people-caused fire occurrence in Ontario.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXnvVOrs78%3D&md5=0d0cb1785d36bd87adf848f27adf3802CAS |
Wotton BM, Logan KA, McAlpine RS (2005) Climate change and the future fire environment in Ontario: fire occurrence and fire management impacts. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Climate Change Research Report CCRR-01. (Sault Ste Marie, ON)
Yeh KS, Côté J, Gravel S, Méthot A, Patoine A, Roch M, Staniforth A (2002) The CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model. Part III: Non-hydrostatic formulation. Monthly Weather Review 130, 339–356.
| The CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model. Part III: Non-hydrostatic formulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
