Regional drought synchronised historical fires in dry forests of the Montane Cordillera Ecozone, Canada
Raphaël D. Chavardès A M , Lori D. Daniels B , Jill E. Harvey C , Gregory A. Greene B , Hélène Marcoux D , Bianca N. I. Eskelson E , Ze’ev Gedalof F , Wesley Brookes B , Rick Kubian G , Jared D. Cochrane H , John H. Nesbitt I , Alexandra M. Pogue B , Olivier Villemaire-Côté
J , Robert W. Gray K and David W. Andison L
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A International Research Laboratory, Institut de Recherche sur les Forêts, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 Boulevard de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada.
B Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
C Department of Natural Resource Science, Thompson Rivers University, 805 TRU Way, Kamloops, BC V2C 0C8, Canada.
D Malcolm Knapp Research Forest, University of British Columbia, 14500 Silver Valley Road, Maple Ridge, BC V4R 2R3, Canada.
E Department of Forest Resources and Management, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
F Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
G Lake Louise, Yoho Kootenay Field Unit, Parks Canada, Government of Canada, Radium Hot Springs, BC V0A 1M0, Canada.
H Lake Louise, Yoho Kootenay Field Unit, Parks Canada, Government of Canada, Lake Louise, BC T0L 1E0, Canada.
I Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, 1984 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2, Canada.
J Département des Sciences du Bois et de la Forêt, Centre d’Étude de la Forêt, Université Laval, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
K RW Gray Consulting Ltd, 6311 Silverthorne Road, Chilliwack, BC V2R 2N2, Canada.
L Bandaloop Landscape-Ecosystem Services Ltd, 6552 Littlewood Road, Nelson, BC V1L 6S1, Canada.
M Corresponding author. Email: raphael.chavardes@uqat.ca
International Journal of Wildland Fire 31(1) 67-80 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF21035
Submitted: 19 March 2021 Accepted: 26 October 2021 Published: 19 November 2021
Journal Compilation © IAWF 2021 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Understanding climate as a driver of low- to moderate-severity fires in the Montane Cordillera Ecozone of Canada is a priority given predicted and observed increases in frequency and severity of large fires due to climate change. We characterised historical fire-climate associations using 14 crossdated fire-scar records and tree-ring proxy reconstructions of summer drought and annual precipitation from the region. We compared fire-climate associations among years when fires burned in multiple study areas. From 1746 to 1945, there were 32 years with moderate fire synchrony in which four to six study areas recorded fire. During four high fire synchrony years, 7 to 10 study areas recorded fire. Below-average annual precipitation and summer drought synchronised fires, whereas infrequent years of high fire synchrony were preceded by a wet summer. After 1945, decreased fire occurrence and synchrony reflects fire exclusion, suppression and climatic variation. Global climate change manifests as blocking high-pressure ridges that superimpose on longer fire-seasons and increased droughts. Combined, they make dry forests increasingly susceptible to synchronous fires, which are difficult to suppress as observed during the record-breaking 2017, 2018 and 2021 fire seasons in British Columbia.
Keywords: fire history, mixed-severity fire regime, dendrochronology, climate, annual precipitation, proxy-climate reconstructions, Palmer Drought Severity Index.
References
Bivand RS, Pebesma EJ, Gómez-Rubio V (2008) ‘Applied spatial data analysis with R’. (Springer: New York, NY)Boulanger Y, Gauthier S, Burton PJ (2014) A refinement of models projecting future Canadian fire regimes using homogeneous fire regime zones. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 44, 365–376.
| A refinement of models projecting future Canadian fire regimes using homogeneous fire regime zones.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman DMJS, Balch JK, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Carlson JM, Cochrane MA, D’Antonio CM, DeFries RS, Doyle JC, Harrison SP, Johnston FH, Keeley JE, Krawchuk MA, Kull CA, Marston JB, Moritz MA, Prentice IC, Roos CI, Scott AC, Swetnam TW, van der Werf GR, Pyne SJ (2009) Fire in the Earth System. Science 324, 481–484.
| Fire in the Earth System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brewer PW, Velásquez ME, Sutherland EK, Falk DA (2015) Fire History Analysis and Exploration System (FHAES) version 2.0. Available at https://www.frames.gov/fhaes/download [Verified 31 May 2021]
Brookes WA, Daniels LD, Copes-Gerbitz K, Baron JN, Carroll AL (2021) A disrupted historical fire regime in central British Columbia. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9, 676961
| A disrupted historical fire regime in central British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chavardès RD, Daniels LD, Gedalof Z, Andison DW (2018) Human influences superceded climate to disrupt the 20th century fire regime in Jasper National Park, Canada. Dendrochronologia 48, 10–19.
| Human influences superceded climate to disrupt the 20th century fire regime in Jasper National Park, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chavardès RD, Daniels LD, Eskelson BNI, Pickell PD (2019) Monthly adaptations of the Drought Code reveal nuanced fire-drought associations in montane forests with a mixed-severity fire regime. International Journal of Wildland Fire 28, 445–455.
| Monthly adaptations of the Drought Code reveal nuanced fire-drought associations in montane forests with a mixed-severity fire regime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chavardès RD, Daniels LD, Eskelson BNI, Gedalof Z (2020) Using complementary drought proxies improves interpretations of fire histories in montane forests. Tree-Ring Research 76, 74–88.
| Using complementary drought proxies improves interpretations of fire histories in montane forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cochrane JD (2007) Characteristics of historical forest fires in complex mixed-conifer forests of southeastern British Columbia. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Collins BM, Omi PN, Chapman PL (2006) Regional relationships between climate and wildfire-burned area in the Interior West, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 699–709.
| Regional relationships between climate and wildfire-burned area in the Interior West, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cook ER, Woodhouse CA, Eakin CM, Meko DM, Stahle DW (2004) Long-term aridity changes in the western United States. Science 306, 1015–1018.
| Long-term aridity changes in the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15472040PubMed |
Daniels LD, Gray RW (2007) An investigation of fire history in the lower Gold/Joseph Creek watershed. Report to the City of Cranbrook. (BC, Canada)
Daniels LD, Watson E (2003) Climate-fire-vegetation interactions in the Cariboo Forests: A dendrochronological analysis. Report to Forest Innovation and Investment Forest Research Program. (BC, Canada)
Daniels LD, Cochrane J, Gray RW (2007) Mixed-severity fire regimes: Regional analysis of the impacts of climate on fire frequency in the Rocky Mountain Forest District. Report to Tembec Inc., BC Division, Canadian Forest Products Ltd., Radium Hot Springs, and the Forest Investment Account of British Columbia. (BC, Canada)
Daniels LD, Maertens TB, Stan AB, McCloskey SPJ, Cochrane JD, Gray RW (2011) Direct and indirect impacts of climate change on forests: three case studies from British Columbia Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 33, 108–116.
| Direct and indirect impacts of climate change on forests: three case studies from British ColumbiaCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Daniels LD, Yocom Kent LL, Sherriff RL, Heyerdahl EK (2017) Deciphering the complexity of historical fire regimes: Diversity among forests of Western North America. In ‘Dendroecology: Tree-ring analyses applied to ecological studies’. (Eds MM Amoroso, LD Daniels, PJ Baker, JJ Camarero) pp. 185–210. (Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland)
Donovan GH, Brown TC (2007) Be careful what you wish for: The legacy of Smokey Bear. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5, 73–79.
| Be careful what you wish for: The legacy of Smokey Bear.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ecological Stratification Working Group (1995) A national ecological framework for Canada. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (Ottawa/Hull, ON, Canada)
Environmental Systems Research Institute (2018) ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10. (Environmental Systems Research Institute: Redlands, CA)
Falk DA, Heyerdahl EK, Brown PM, Farris C, Fulé PZ, McKenzie D, Swetnam TW, Taylor AH, Van Horne ML (2011) Multi-scale controls of historical forest-fire regimes: New insights from fire-scar networks. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9, 446–454.
| Multi-scale controls of historical forest-fire regimes: New insights from fire-scar networks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flannigan MD, Krawchuk MA, de Groot WJ, Wotton MB, Gowman LM (2009) Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 483–507.
| Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flannigan M, Cantin AS, de Groot WJ, Wotton M, Newbery A, Gowman LM (2013) Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 54–61.
| Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gedalof Z (2011) Climate and spatial patterns of wildfire in North America. In ‘The landscape ecology of fire’. (Eds D McKenzie, C Miller, DA Falk) pp. 89–115. (Springer: New York, NY)
Gedalof Z, Peterson DL, Mantua NJ (2005) Atmospheric, climatic and ecological controls on extreme wildfire years in the northwestern United States. Ecological Applications 15, 154–174.
| Atmospheric, climatic and ecological controls on extreme wildfire years in the northwestern United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gorvine B, Rosengren K, Stein L, Biolsi K (2018) ‘Research methods: From theory to practice’. (Oxford University Press: New York, NY)
Greene GA, Daniels LD (2017) Spatial interpolation and mean fire interval analyses quantify historical mixed-severity fire regimes. International Journal of Wildland Fire 26, 136–147.
| Spatial interpolation and mean fire interval analyses quantify historical mixed-severity fire regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Halofsky JE, Donato DC, Hibbs DE, Campbell JL, Cannon MD, Fontaine JB, Thompson JR, Anthony RG, Bormann BT, Kayes LJ, Law BE, Peterson DL, Spies TA (2011) Mixed-severity fire regimes: lessons and hypotheses from the Klamath–Siskiyou ecoregion. Ecosphere 2, 1–19.
| Mixed-severity fire regimes: lessons and hypotheses from the Klamath–Siskiyou ecoregion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hanes CC, Wang XL, Jain P, Parisien M-A, Little JM, Flannigan MD (2019) Fire-regime changes in Canada over the last half century. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 49, 256–269.
| Fire-regime changes in Canada over the last half century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harvey JE, Smith DJ (2017) Interannual climate variability drives regional fires in west central British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Geophysical Research. Biogeosciences 122, 1759–1774.
| Interannual climate variability drives regional fires in west central British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harvey JE, Smith DJ, Veblen TT (2017) Mixed-severity fire history at a forest–grassland ecotone in west central British Columbia, Canada. Ecological Applications 27, 1746–1760.
| Mixed-severity fire history at a forest–grassland ecotone in west central British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28434190PubMed |
Hessburg PF, Miller CL, Parks SA, Povak NA, Taylor AH, Higuera PE, Prichard SJ, North MP, Collins BM, Hurteau MD, Larson AJ, Allen CD, Stephens SL, Rivera-Huerta H, Stevens-Rumann CS, Daniels LD, Gedalof Z, Gray RW, Kane VR, Churchill DJ, Hagmann KR, Spies TA, Cansler AC, Belote TR, Veblen TT, Battaglia MA, Hoffman C, Skinner CN, Safford HD, Salter BR (2019) Climate, environment, and disturbance history govern resilience of western North American forests. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7, 239
| Climate, environment, and disturbance history govern resilience of western North American forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heyerdahl EK, Lertzman K, Karpuk S (2007) Local-scale controls of a low-severity fire regime, (1750–1950), southern British Columbia, Canada. Ecoscience 14, 40–47.
| Local-scale controls of a low-severity fire regime, (1750–1950), southern British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heyerdahl EK, Morgan P, Riser JP (2008a) Multi-season climate synchronized widespread historical fires in dry forests (1630–1900), Northern Rockies, USA. Ecology 89, 705–716.
| Multi-season climate synchronized widespread historical fires in dry forests (1630–1900), Northern Rockies, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18459334PubMed |
Heyerdahl EK, McKenzie D, Daniels LD, Hessl AE, Littell JS, Mantua NJ (2008b) Climate drivers of regionally synchronous fires in the inland Northwest (1651–1900). International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 40–49.
| Climate drivers of regionally synchronous fires in the inland Northwest (1651–1900).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heyerdahl EK, Lertzman K, Wong CM (2012) Mixed-severity fire regimes in dry forests of southern interior British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, 88–98.
| Mixed-severity fire regimes in dry forests of southern interior British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Higuera PE, Abatzoglou JT, Littell JS, Morgan P (2015) The changing strength and nature of fire-climate relationships in the northern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A., 1902–2008. PLoS One 10, e0127563
| The changing strength and nature of fire-climate relationships in the northern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A., 1902–2008.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26114580PubMed |
Jain P, Flannigan M (2021) The relationship between the polar jet stream and extreme wildfire events in North America. Journal of Climate 34, 6247–6265.
| The relationship between the polar jet stream and extreme wildfire events in North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson EA, Wowchuck DR (1993) Wildfires in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains and their relationship to mid-tropospheric anomalies. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23, 1213–1222.
| Wildfires in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains and their relationship to mid-tropospheric anomalies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Karnauskas KB, Lundquist JK, Zhang L (2018) Southward shift of the global wind energy resource under high carbon dioxide emissions. Nature Geoscience 11, 38–43.
| Southward shift of the global wind energy resource under high carbon dioxide emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keane RE, Ryan KC, Veblen TT, Allen CD, Logan J, Hawkes B (2002) Cascading effects of fire exclusion in Rocky Mountain ecosystems: A literature review. In ‘Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective’. (Ed. J Baron) pp. 133–152. (Island Press: Washington, DC)
Kirchmeier-Young MC, Gillett NP, Zwiers FW, Cannon AJ, Anslow FS (2019) Attribution of the influence of human-induced climate change on an extreme fire season. Earth’s Future 7, 2–10.
| Attribution of the influence of human-induced climate change on an extreme fire season.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kitzberger T, Brown PM, Heyerdahl EK, Swetnam TW, Veblen TT (2007) Contingent Pacific-Atlantic Ocean influence on multi-century wildfire synchrony over western North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 543–548.
| Contingent Pacific-Atlantic Ocean influence on multi-century wildfire synchrony over western North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17197425PubMed |
Knapp PA, Grissino-Mayer HD, Soulé PT (2002) Climatic regionalization and the spatio-temporal occurrence of extreme single-year drought events (1500–1998) in the interior Pacific Northwest, USA. Quaternary Research 58, 226–233.
| Climatic regionalization and the spatio-temporal occurrence of extreme single-year drought events (1500–1998) in the interior Pacific Northwest, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krawchuk MA, Cumming SG, Flannigan MD (2009) Predicted changes in fire weather suggest increases in lightning fire initiation and future area burned in the mixedwood boreal forest. Climatic Change 92, 83–97.
| Predicted changes in fire weather suggest increases in lightning fire initiation and future area burned in the mixedwood boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kubian R (2013) Characterizing the mixed-severity fire regime of the Kootenay Valley, Kootenay National Park. MSc thesis, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
Lake FK, Christianson AC (2019) Indigenous Fire Stewardship. In ‘Encyclopedia of wildfires and wildland-urban interface (WUI) fires’. (Ed. SL Manzello) pp. 1–9. (Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland)
Lawson BD, Armitage OB (2008) Weather Guide for the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre. (Edmonton, AB, Canada)
Leclerc MA, Daniels LD, Carroll A (2021) Managing wildlife habitat: Complex interactions with biotic and abiotic disturbances. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9, 613371
| Managing wildlife habitat: Complex interactions with biotic and abiotic disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lewis M, Christianson A, Spinks M (2018) Return to flame: Reasons for burning in Lytton First Nation, British Columbia. Journal of Forestry 116, 143–150.
| Return to flame: Reasons for burning in Lytton First Nation, British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Littell JS, McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Westerling AL (2009) Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916–2003. Ecological Applications 19, 1003–1021.
| Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916–2003.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19544740PubMed |
Littell JS, Peterson DL, Riley KL, Liu Y, Luce CH (2016) A review of the relationships between drought and forest fire in the United States. Global Change Biology 22, 2353–2369.
| A review of the relationships between drought and forest fire in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27090489PubMed |
Macias Fauria M, Johnson EA (2006) Large-scale climatic patterns control large lightning fire occurrence in Canada and Alaska forest regions. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, 1–17.
| Large-scale climatic patterns control large lightning fire occurrence in Canada and Alaska forest regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macias Fauria MM, Johnson EA (2008) Climate and wildfires in the North American boreal forest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 363, 2315–2327.
| Climate and wildfires in the North American boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macias Fauria M, Michaletz ST, Johnson EA (2011) Predicting climate change effects on wildfires requires linking processes across scales. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 2, 99–112.
| Predicting climate change effects on wildfires requires linking processes across scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marcoux HM, Gergel SE, Daniels LD (2013) Mixed-severity fire regimes: how well are they represented by existing fire-regime classification systems? Canadian Journal of Forest Research 43, 658–668.
| Mixed-severity fire regimes: how well are they represented by existing fire-regime classification systems?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marcoux HM, Daniels LD, Gergel SE, Da Silva E, Gedalof ZM, Hessburg PF (2015) Differentiating mixed- and high-severity fire regimes in mixed-conifer forests of the Canadian Cordillera. Forest Ecology and Management 341, 45–58.
| Differentiating mixed- and high-severity fire regimes in mixed-conifer forests of the Canadian Cordillera.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Margolis EQ, Swetnam TW (2013) Historical fire-climate relationships of upper elevation fire regimes in the south-western United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 588–598.
| Historical fire-climate relationships of upper elevation fire regimes in the south-western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meyn A, Taylor SW, Flannigan MD, Thonicke K, Cramer W (2010a) Relationships between fire, climate oscillations, and drought in British Columbia, Canada, 1920–2000. Global Change Biology 16, 977–989.
| Relationships between fire, climate oscillations, and drought in British Columbia, Canada, 1920–2000.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meyn A, Schmidtlein S, Taylor SW, Girardin MP, Thonicke K, Cramer W (2010b) Spatial variation of trends in wildfire and summer drought in British Columbia, Canada, 1920–2000. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 272–283.
| Spatial variation of trends in wildfire and summer drought in British Columbia, Canada, 1920–2000.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development (2021) Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) Zone/Subzone/Variant/Phase map, Forest Analysis and Inventory, Government of British Columbia. Available at https://catalogue.data.gov.bc.ca/dataset/bec-map [Verified 14 October 2021]
Morgan P, Heyerdahl EK, Gibson CE (2008) Multi-season climate synchronized forest fires throughout the 20th century, northern Rockies, USA. Ecology 89, 717–728.
| Multi-season climate synchronized forest fires throughout the 20th century, northern Rockies, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18459335PubMed |
Moritz MA, Batllori E, Bradstock RA, Gill AM, Handmer J, Hessburg PF, Leonard J, McCaffrey S, Odion DC, Schoennagel T, Syphard AD (2014) Learning to coexist with wildfire. Nature 515, 58–66.
| Learning to coexist with wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25373675PubMed |
Natural Resources Canada (2021) Canadian Wildland Fire Information System, CWFIS Datamart, National Fire Database fire point data. Government of Canada. Available at http://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/datamart/metadata/nfdbpnt [Verified 1 September 2021]
Nesbitt JH (2010) Quantifying forest fire variability using tree rings Nelson, British Columbia 1700–present. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Nesbitt JH, Daniels LD (2009) Fire history in Cranbrook: Reconstructing fire frequency at McLeary Park & Rocky Mountain Airport. Report to RW Gray Consulting Ltd. and the City of Cranbrook. (BC, Canada)
Palmer WC (1965) Meteorologic drought. Office of Climatology, United States Weather Bureau, Research Paper 45. (Washington, DC, USA)
Perry DA, Hessburg PF, Skinner CN, Spies TA, Stephens SL, Taylor AH, Franklin JF, McComb B, Riegel G (2011) The ecology of mixed severity fire regimes in Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Forest Ecology and Management 262, 703–717.
| The ecology of mixed severity fire regimes in Washington, Oregon, and Northern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pogue AM (2017) Humans, climate and an ignitions-limited fire regime at Vaseux Lake. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Pojar J, Meidinger DV (1991) British Columbia: the environmental setting. In ‘Ecosystems of British Columbia’. (Eds DV Meidinger, J Pojar) pp. 339–366. (British Columbia Ministry of Forests: Victoria, BC, Canada)
Pyne SJ (1982) ‘Fire in America: A cultural history of wildland and rural fire’. (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ)
Pyne SJ (2007) ‘Awful splendor: A fire history of Canada’. (University of British Columbia Press: Vancouver, BC, Canada)
Salkind N (2007) ‘Encyclopedia of measurement and statistics’. (Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA)
Sankey S (2019) Blueprint for wildland fire science in Canada (2019–2029). Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre. (Edmonton, AB, Canada)
SAS Institute Inc. (2017) SAS 9.4 Documentation. SAS Institute Incorporated, Cary, NC. Available at http://support.sas.com/documentation/cdl_main/94/docindex.html [Verified 31 May 2021]
Schoennagel T, Veblen TT, Romme WH, Sibold JS, Cook ER (2005) ENSO and PDO variability affect drought-induced fire occurrence in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests. Ecological Applications 15, 2000–2014.
| ENSO and PDO variability affect drought-induced fire occurrence in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Skinner WR, Stocks BJ, Martell DL, Bonsal B, Shabbar A (1999) The association between circulation anomalies in the mid-troposphere and area burned by wildland fire in Canada. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 63, 89–105.
| The association between circulation anomalies in the mid-troposphere and area burned by wildland fire in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stephens SL, Agee JK, Fulé PZ, North MP, Romme WH, Swetnam TW, Turner MG (2013) Managing forests and fire in changing climates. Science 342, 41–42.
| Managing forests and fire in changing climates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24092714PubMed |
Stephens SL, Burrows N, Buyantuyev A, Gray RW, Keane RE, Kubian R, Liu SR, Seijo F, Shu LF, Tolhurst KG, van Wagtendonk JW (2014) Temperate and boreal forest mega-fires: Characteristics and challenges. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 115–122.
| Temperate and boreal forest mega-fires: Characteristics and challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stevens-Rumann CS, Kemp KB, Higuera PE, Harvey BJ, Rother MT, Donato DC, Morgan P, Veblen TT (2018) Evidence for declining forest resilience to wildfires under climate change. Ecology Letters 21, 243–252.
| Evidence for declining forest resilience to wildfires under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29230936PubMed |
Swetnam TW (1993) Fire history and climate change in giant sequoia groves. Science 262, 885–889.
| Fire history and climate change in giant sequoia groves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17757357PubMed |
Swetnam TW, Anderson SR (2008) Fire climatology in the western United States: Introduction to special issue. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 1–7.
| Fire climatology in the western United States: Introduction to special issue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trouet V, Taylor AH, Wahl ER, Skinner CN, Stephens SL (2010) Fire-climate interactions in the American West since 1400 CE. Geophysical Research Letters 37, 1–5.
| Fire-climate interactions in the American West since 1400 CE.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Villemaire-Côté O (2014) Fire history near Cranbrook, British Columbia: Historical reconstruction using tree-ring evidence. Undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Watson E, Luckman BH (2004) Tree-ring based reconstructions of precipitation for the Southern Canadian Cordillera. Climatic Change 65, 209–241.
| Tree-ring based reconstructions of precipitation for the Southern Canadian Cordillera.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watson E, Luckman BH (2005) Spatial patterns of preinstrumental moisture variability in the Southern Canadian Cordillera. Journal of Climate 18, 2847–2863.
| Spatial patterns of preinstrumental moisture variability in the Southern Canadian Cordillera.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL (2016) Increasing western US forest wildfire activity: sensitivity to changes in the timing of spring. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 371, 20150178
| Increasing western US forest wildfire activity: sensitivity to changes in the timing of spring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27216510PubMed |
Westerling AL, Gershunov A, Brown TJ, Cayan DR, Dettinger MD (2003) Climate and wildfire in the western United States. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84, 595–604.
| Climate and wildfire in the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase western US Forest Wildfire Activity. Science 313, 940–943.
| Warming and earlier spring increase western US Forest Wildfire Activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16825536PubMed |
Williams PA, Abatzoglou JT (2016) Recent advances and remaining uncertainties in resolving past and future climate effects on global fire activity. Current Climate Change Reports 2, 1–14.
| Recent advances and remaining uncertainties in resolving past and future climate effects on global fire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wotton BM, Flannigan MD, Marshall GA (2017) Potential climate change impacts on fire intensity and key wildfire suppression thresholds in Canada. Environmental Research Letters 12, 095003
| Potential climate change impacts on fire intensity and key wildfire suppression thresholds in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
