The impact of US wildland fires on ozone and particulate matter: a comparison of measurements and CMAQ model predictions from 2008 to 2012
Joseph L. Wilkins
A B , George Pouliot A , Kristen Foley A , Wyat Appel A and Thomas Pierce A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A US Environmental Protection Agency, Computational Exposure Division, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
B Corresponding author. Email: wilkins.joseph@epa.gov
International Journal of Wildland Fire 27(10) 684-698 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF18053
Submitted: 11 April 2018 Accepted: 15 August 2018 Published: 10 September 2018
Abstract
Wildland fire emissions are routinely estimated in the US Environmental Protection Agency’s National Emissions Inventory, specifically for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and precursors to ozone (O3); however, there is a large amount of uncertainty in this sector. We employ a brute-force zero-out sensitivity method to estimate the impact of wildland fire emissions on air quality across the contiguous US using the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modelling system. These simulations are designed to assess the importance of wildland fire emissions on CMAQ model performance and are not intended for regulatory assessments. CMAQ ver. 5.0.1 estimated that fires contributed 11% to the mean PM2.5 and less than 1% to the mean O3 concentrations during 2008–2012. Adding fires to CMAQ increases the number of ‘grid-cell days’ with PM2.5 above 35 µg m−3 by a factor of 4 and the number of grid-cell days with maximum daily 8-h average O3 above 70 ppb by 14%. Although CMAQ simulations of specific fires have improved with the latest model version (e.g. for the 2008 California wildfire episode, the correlation r = 0.82 with CMAQ ver. 5.0.1 v. r = 0.68 for CMAQ ver. 4.7.1), the model still exhibits a low bias at higher observed concentrations and a high bias at lower observed concentrations. Given the large impact of wildland fire emissions on simulated concentrations of elevated PM2.5 and O3, improvements are recommended on how these emissions are characterised and distributed vertically in the model.
Additional keywords : air pollution, air quality modelling, Community Multiscale Air Quality, National Emissions inventory, wildland fire emissions.
References
Akagi SK, Craven JS, Taylor JW, McMeeking GR, Yokelson RJ, Burling IR, Urbanski SP, Wold CE, Seinfeld JH, Coe H, Alvarado MJ, Weise DR (2012) Evolution of trace gases and particles emitted by a chaparral fire in California. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12, 1397–1421.| Evolution of trace gases and particles emitted by a chaparral fire in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aponte C, de Groot WJ, Wotton BM (2016) Forest fires and climate change: causes, consequences and management options. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, i–ii.
| Forest fires and climate change: causes, consequences and management options.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Appel KW, Napelenok S, Foley KM, Pye HOT, Hogrefe C, Luecken D, Bash JO, Roselle SJ, Pleim JE, Foroutan H, Hutzell W, Pouliot G, Sarwar G, Fahey K, Gantt B, Gilliam RC, Kang D, Mathur R, Schwede D, Spero T, Wong DC, Young J (2017) Overview and evaluation of the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model version 5.1. Geoscience Model Development 10, 1703–1732.
| Overview and evaluation of the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model version 5.1.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Appel KW, Gilliam RC, Davis N, Zubrow A, Howard SC (2011) Overview of the Atmospheric Model Evaluation Tool (AMET) v1.1 for evaluating meteorological and air quality models. Environmental Modelling & Software 26, 434–443.
| Overview of the Atmospheric Model Evaluation Tool (AMET) v1.1 for evaluating meteorological and air quality models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Appel KW, Pouliot GA, Simon H, Sarwar G, Pye HOT, Napelenok SL, Akhtar F, Roselle SJ (2013) Evaluation of dust and trace metal estimates from the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model version 5.0. Geoscientific Model Development 6, 883–899.
| Evaluation of dust and trace metal estimates from the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model version 5.0.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker KR, Woody MC, Tonnesen GS, Hutzell W, Pye HOT, Beaver MR, Pouliot G, Pierce T (2016) Contribution of regional-scale fire events to ozone and PM2.5 air quality estimated by photochemical modeling approaches. Atmospheric Environment 140, 539–554.
| Contribution of regional-scale fire events to ozone and PM2.5 air quality estimated by photochemical modeling approaches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Balling CR, Meyer GA, Wells SG (1992) Climate change in yellowstone national park: is the drought-related risk of wildfires increasing? Climatic Change 22, 35–45.
| Climate change in yellowstone national park: is the drought-related risk of wildfires increasing?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barbero R, Abatzoglou JT, Larkin NK, Kolden CA, Stocks B (2015) Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire
| Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bytnerowicz A, Hsu YM, Percy K, Legge A, Fenn ME, Schilling S, Fraczek W, Alexander D (2016) Ground-level air pollution changes during a boreal wildland mega-fire. The Science of the Total Environment 572, 755–769.
| Ground-level air pollution changes during a boreal wildland mega-fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byun D, Schere KL (2006) Review of the governing equations, computational algorithms, and other components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system. Applied Mechanics Reviews 59, 51–77.
| Review of the governing equations, computational algorithms, and other components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cai C, Kulkarni S, Zhao Z, Kaduwela AP, Avise JC, DaMassa JA, Singh HB, Weinheimer AJ, Cohen RC, Diskin GS, Wennberg P, Dibb JE, Huey G, Wisthaler A, Jimenez JL, Cubison MJ (2016) Simulating reactive nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and ozone in California during ARCTAS-CARB 2008 with high wildfire activity. Atmospheric Environment 128, 28–44.
| Simulating reactive nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and ozone in California during ARCTAS-CARB 2008 with high wildfire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohan DS, Napelenok SL (2011) Air quality response modeling for decision support. Atmosphere 2, 407–425.
| Air quality response modeling for decision support.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dennison PE, Brewer SC, Arnold JD, Moritz MA (2014) Large wildfire trends in the western United States, 1984–2011. Geophysical Research Letters 41, 2928–2933.
| Large wildfire trends in the western United States, 1984–2011.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fann N, Fulcher CM, Baker K (2013) The recent and future health burden of air pollution apportioned across US sectors. Environmental Science & Technology 47, 3580–3589.
| The recent and future health burden of air pollution apportioned across US sectors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fann N, Alman B, Broome RA, Morgan GG, Johnston FH, Pouliot G, Rappold AG (2018) The health impacts and economic value of wildland fire episodes in the US: 2008–2012. The Science of the Total Environment 610–611, 802–809.
| The health impacts and economic value of wildland fire episodes in the US: 2008–2012.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forrister H, Liu J, Scheuer E, Dibb JE, Ziemba LD, Thornhill KL, Anderson B, Diskin G, Perring AE, Schwarz JP, Campuzano-Jost P, Day DA, Palm BB, Jimenez JL, Nenes A, Weber RJ (2015) Evolution of brown carbon in wildfire plumes. Geophysical Research Letters 42, 4623–4630.
| Evolution of brown carbon in wildfire plumes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fried JS, Torn MS, Mills E (2004) The impact of climate change on wildfire severity: a regional forecast for northern California. Climatic Change 64,
| The impact of climate change on wildfire severity: a regional forecast for northern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garcia-Menendez F, Hu Y, Odman MT (2013) Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: sensitivity to uncertain wind fields. Journal of Geophysical Research, D, Atmospheres 118, 6493–6504.
| Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: sensitivity to uncertain wind fields.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garcia-Menendez F, Hu Y, Odman MT (2014) Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: sensitivity to spatiotemporal allocation of fire emissions. The Science of the Total Environment 493, 544–553.
| Simulating smoke transport from wildland fires with a regional-scale air quality model: sensitivity to spatiotemporal allocation of fire emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Giglio L, Randerson JT, van der Werf GR, Kasibhatla PS, Collatz GJ, Morton DC, DeFries RS (2010) Assessing variability and long-term trends in burned area by merging multiple satellite fire products. Biogeosciences 7, 1171–1186.
| Assessing variability and long-term trends in burned area by merging multiple satellite fire products.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jaffe DA, Widger NL (2012) Ozone production from wildfires: A critical review. Atmospheric Environment 51, 1–10.
| Ozone production from wildfires: A critical review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jiang X, Wiedinmyer C, Carlton AG (2012) Aerosols from fires: an examination of the effects on ozone photochemistry in the western United States. Environmental Science & Technology 46, 11878–11886.
| Aerosols from fires: an examination of the effects on ozone photochemistry in the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnston FH, Henderson SB, Chen Y, Randerson JT, Marlier M, Defries RS, Kinney P, Bowman DM, Brauer M (2012) Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape fires. Environmental Health Perspectives 120, 695–701.
| Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Konovalov IB, Beekmann M, Berezin EV, Petetin H, Mielonen T, Kuznetsova IN, Andreae MO (2015) The role of semi-volatile organic compounds in the mesoscale evolution of biomass burning aerosol: a modeling case study of the 2010 mega-fire event in Russia. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15, 13269–13297.
| The role of semi-volatile organic compounds in the mesoscale evolution of biomass burning aerosol: a modeling case study of the 2010 mega-fire event in Russia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Larkin NK, Raffuse SM, Strand TM (2014) Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: US emissions inventories. Forest Ecology and Management 317, 61–69.
| Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: US emissions inventories.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee S, Liu W, Wang YH, Russell AG, Edgerton ES (2008) Source apportionment of PM2.5: comparing PMF and CMB results for four ambient monitoring sites in the southeastern United States. Atmospheric Environment 42, 4126–4137.
| Source apportionment of PM2.5: comparing PMF and CMB results for four ambient monitoring sites in the southeastern United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lelieveld J, Evans JS, Fnais M, Giannadaki D, Pozzer A (2015) The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature 525, 367–371.
| The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liu YL, Goodrick SA, Stanturf J (2013) Future US wildfire potential trends projected using a dynamically downscaled climate change scenario. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 120–135.
| Future US wildfire potential trends projected using a dynamically downscaled climate change scenario.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liu JC, Pereira G, Uhl SA, Bravo MA, Bell ML (2015) A systematic review of the physical health impacts from non-occupational exposure to wildfire smoke. Environmental Research 136, 120–132.
| A systematic review of the physical health impacts from non-occupational exposure to wildfire smoke.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
May AA, Levin EJT, Hennigan CJ, Riipinen I, Lee T, Collett JL, Jimenez JL, Kreidenweis SM, Robinson AL (2013) Gas-particle partitioning of primary organic aerosol emissions: 3. biomass burning. Journal of Geophysical Research, D, Atmospheres 118, 11,327–11,338.
| Gas-particle partitioning of primary organic aerosol emissions: 3. biomass burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
May AA, Lee T, McMeeking GR, Akagi S, Sullivan AP, Urbanski S, Yokelson RJ, Kreidenweis SM (2015) Observations and analysis of organic aerosol evolution in some prescribed fire smoke plumes. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15, 6323–6335.
| Observations and analysis of organic aerosol evolution in some prescribed fire smoke plumes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKeen SA, Wotawa G, Parrish DD, Holloway JS, Buhr MP, Hubler G, Fehsenfeld FC, Meagher JF (2002) Ozone production from Canadian wildfires during June and July of 1995. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, 4192–4217.
| Ozone production from Canadian wildfires during June and July of 1995.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mitchell RJ, Liu Y, O’Brien JJ, Elliott KJ, Starr G, Miniat CF, Hiers JK (2014) Future climate and fire interactions in the southeastern region of the United States. Forest Ecology and Management 327, 316–326.
| Future climate and fire interactions in the southeastern region of the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Munoz-Alpizar R, Pavlovic R, Moran MD, Chen J, Gravel S, Henderson SB, Ménard S, Racine J, Duhamel A, Gilbert S, Beaulieu PA, Landry H, Davignon D, Cousineau S, Bouchet V (2017) Multi-year (2013–2016) PM2.5 wildfire pollution exposure over North America as determined from operational air quality forecasts. Atmosphere 8, 179
| Multi-year (2013–2016) PM2.5 wildfire pollution exposure over North America as determined from operational air quality forecasts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
National Interagency Fire Center (2016) Total Wildland Fires and Acres (1960–2015). http://www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_totalFires.html.
Ottmar RD, Sandberg DV, Riccardi CL, Prichard SJ (2007) An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system – quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 2383–2393.
| An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system – quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parry ML, Canziani JP, Palutikof PJ, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (Eds) (2007) ‘Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Paugam R, Wooster M, Freitas S, Val Martin M (2016) A review of approaches to estimate wildfire plume injection height within large-scale atmospheric chemical transport models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, 907–925.
| A review of approaches to estimate wildfire plume injection height within large-scale atmospheric chemical transport models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peel MC, Finlayson BL, McMahon TA (2007) Updated world map of the Köoppen–Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 11, 1633–1644.
| Updated world map of the Köoppen–Geiger climate classification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peterson DA, Hyer EJ, Campbell JR, Solbrig JE, Fromm MD (2017) A conceptual model for development of intense pyrocumulonimbus in western North America. Monthly Weather Review 145, 2235–2255.
| A conceptual model for development of intense pyrocumulonimbus in western North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pfister GG, Wiedinmyer C, Emmons LK (2008) Impacts of the fall 2007 California wildfires on surface ozone: integrating local observations with global model simulations. Geophysical Research Letters 35,
| Impacts of the fall 2007 California wildfires on surface ozone: integrating local observations with global model simulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pye HOT, Seinfeld JH (2010) A global perspective on aerosol from low-volatility organic compounds. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 4377–4401.
| A global perspective on aerosol from low-volatility organic compounds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Raffuse SM, Sullivan DC, Chinkin LR, Pryden DA, Wheeler NJ, Larkin NK, Soja A (2007) Integration and reconciliation of satellite-detected and Incident Command-reported wildfire information in the BlueSky Smoke Modeling Framework. In ‘Proceedings of the 6th Annual CMAS Conference’, 1–3 October 2007, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. (Community Modeling and Analysis System) Available at https://www.cmascenter.org/conference/2007/abstracts/wheeler_session4_2007.pdf [Verified 10 January 2018]
Raffuse SM, Larkin NK, Lahm PW, Du Y (2012) Development of version 2 of the wildland fire portion of the National Emissions Inventory. Available at www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei20/session2/sraffuse.pdf [Verified 10 January 2018]
Rappold AG, Stone SL, Cascio WE, Neas LM, Kilaru VJ, Carraway MS, Szykman JJ, Ising A, Cleve WE, Meredith JT, Vaughan-Batten H, Deyneka L, Devlin RB (2011) Peat bog wildfire smoke exposure in rural North Carolina is associated with cardiopulmonary emergency department visits assessed through syndromic surveillance. Environmental Health Perspectives 119, 1415–1420.
| Peat bog wildfire smoke exposure in rural North Carolina is associated with cardiopulmonary emergency department visits assessed through syndromic surveillance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rappold AG, Reyes J, Pouliot G, Cascio WE, Diaz-Sanchez D (2017) Community vulnerability to health impacts of wildland fire smoke exposure. Environmental Science & Technology 51, 6674–6682.
| Community vulnerability to health impacts of wildland fire smoke exposure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saide PE, Peterson DA, da Silva A, Anderson B, Ziemba LD, Diskin G, Sachse GW, Hair JW, Butler CF, Fenn ME, Jimenez JL, Campuzano-Jost P, Perring AE, Schwarz JP, Markovic MZ, Russell P, Redemann J, Shinozuka Y, Streets DG, Yan F, Dibb JE, Yokelson RJ, Toon OB, Hyer E, Carmichael GR (2015) Revealing important nocturnal and day-to-day variations in fire smoke emissions through a multiplatfrom inversion. Geophysical Research Letters 42,
| Revealing important nocturnal and day-to-day variations in fire smoke emissions through a multiplatfrom inversion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simon H, Baker KR, Phillips S (2012) Compilation and interpretation of photochemical model performance statistics published between 2006 and 2012. Atmospheric Environment 61, 124–139.
| Compilation and interpretation of photochemical model performance statistics published between 2006 and 2012.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stocks BJ, Fosberg MA, Lynham TJ, Mearns L, Wotton BM, Yan F, Jin J-Z, Lawrence K, Hartley GR, Mason JA, Mckenney DW (1998) Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests. Climatic Change 38, 1–13.
| Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sullivan DC, Raffuse SM, Pryden DA, Craig KJ, Reid SB, Wheeler NJ, Strand T (2008) Development and applications of systems for modeling emissions and smoke from fires: the BlueSky smoke modeling framework and SMARTFIRE. In ‘17th International Emissions Inventory Conference’, 2–5 June 2008, Portland, OR, USA. pp. 2–5. Available at https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei17/session12/raffuse_pres.pdf [Verified 10 January 2018]
Towne EG, Craine JM (2016) A critical examination of timing of burning in the Kansas Flint Hills. Rangeland Ecology and Management 69, 28–34.
| A critical examination of timing of burning in the Kansas Flint Hills.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vakkari V, Kerminen VM, Beukes JP, Tiitta P, van Zyl PG, Josipovic M, Venter AD, Jaars K, Worsnop DR, Kulmala M, Laakso L (2014) Rapid changes in biomass burning aerosols by atmospheric oxidation. Geophysical Research Letters 41, 2644–2651.
| Rapid changes in biomass burning aerosols by atmospheric oxidation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Collatz GJ, Mu M, Kasibhatla PS, Morton DC, DeFries RS, Jin Y, van Leeuwen TT (2010) Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 11707–11735.
| Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Waldrop TA, White DL, Jones SM (1992) Fire regimes for pine-grassland communities in the southeastern united states. Forest Ecology and Management 47, 195–210.
| Fire regimes for pine-grassland communities in the southeastern united states.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL, Bryant BP (2008) Climate change and wildfire in California. Climatic Change 87, 231–249.
| Climate change and wildfire in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL, Gershunov A, Brown TJ, Cayan DR, Dettinger MD (2003) Climate and wildfire in the western United States. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84, 595–604.
| Climate and wildfire in the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wigder NL, Jaffe DA, Saketa FA (2013) Ozone and particulate matter enhancements from regional wildfires observed at Mount Bachelor during 2004–2011. Atmospheric Environment 75, 24–31.
| Ozone and particulate matter enhancements from regional wildfires observed at Mount Bachelor during 2004–2011.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wong DC, Pleim J, Mathur R, Binkowski F, Otte T, Gilliam R, Pouliot G, Xiu A, Young JO, Kang D (2012) WRF-CMAQ two-way coupled system with aerosol feedback: software development and preliminary results. Geoscientific Model Development 5, 299–312.
| WRF-CMAQ two-way coupled system with aerosol feedback: software development and preliminary results.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woody MC, Baker KR, Hayes PL, Jimenez JL, Koo B, Pye HOT (2016) Understanding sources of organic aerosol during CALNEX-2010 using the CMAQ-VBS. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, 4081–4100.
| Understanding sources of organic aerosol during CALNEX-2010 using the CMAQ-VBS.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zeng T, Wang Y, Yoshida Y, Tian D, Russell AG, Barnard WR (2008) Impacts of prescribed fires on air quality over the southeastern United States in spring based on modeling and ground/satellite measurements. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 8401–8406.
| Impacts of prescribed fires on air quality over the southeastern United States in spring based on modeling and ground/satellite measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zhang X, Hecobian A, Zheng M, Frank NH, Weber RJ (2010) Biomass burning impact on PM2.5 over the southeastern US during 2007: integrating chemically speciated FRM filter measurements, MODIS fire counts and PMF analysis. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 6839–6853.
| Biomass burning impact on PM2.5 over the southeastern US during 2007: integrating chemically speciated FRM filter measurements, MODIS fire counts and PMF analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
