Using hyperspectral imagery to estimate forest floor consumption from wildfire in boreal forests of Alaska, USA
Sarah A. Lewis A F G , Andrew T. Hudak A G , Roger D. Ottmar B , Peter R. Robichaud A , Leigh B. Lentile C , Sharon M. Hood D , James B. Cronan B and Penny Morgan E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 1221 S Main Street, Moscow, ID 83843, USA.
B USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, 400 N 34th Street, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, USA.
C Department of Forestry and Geology, The University of the South, 735 University Avenue, Sewanee, TN 37383, USA.
D USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, 5775 US Highway 10 W, Missoula, MT 59808, USA.
E Department of Forest Resources, University of Idaho, 6th and Line Street, Moscow, ID 83843, USA.
F Corresponding author. Email: sarahlewis@fs.fed.us
G Authors have contributed equally.
International Journal of Wildland Fire 20(2) 255-271 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF09081
Submitted: 21 July 2009 Accepted: 17 June 2010 Published: 30 March 2011
Abstract
Wildfire is a major forest disturbance in interior Alaska that can both directly and indirectly alter ecological processes. We used a combination of pre- and post-fire forest floor depths and post-fire ground cover assessments measured in the field, and high-resolution airborne hyperspectral imagery, to map forest floor conditions after the 2004 Taylor Complex in Alaska’s boreal forest. We applied a linear spectral unmixing model with five endmembers representing green moss, non-photosynthetic moss, charred moss, ash and soil to reflectance data to produce fractional cover maps. Our study sites spanned low to moderately high burn severity, and both black and white spruce forest types; high cover of green or non-photosynthetic moss in the remotely sensed imagery indicated low consumption, whereas high cover of charred moss, ash or soil indicated higher consumption. Strong relationships (R2 = 0.5 to 0.6) between green moss estimated from the imagery and both post-fire depth and percentage consumption suggest that potential burn severity may be predicted by a map of green (live) moss. Given that the depth of the post-fire forest floor is ecologically significant, the method of mapping the condition of the organic forest floor with hyperspectral imagery presented here may be a useful tool to assess the effect of future fires in the boreal region.
Additional keywords: burn severity, carbon, duff, hyperspectral remote sensing, moss.
References
Adams JB, Smith MO, Johnson PE (1986) Spectral mixture modeling: a new analysis of rock and soil types at the Viking Lander 1 site. Journal of Geophysical Research 91, 8098–8112.| Spectral mixture modeling: a new analysis of rock and soil types at the Viking Lander 1 site.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alexander ME (1982) Calculating and interpreting forest fire intensities. Canadian Journal of Botany 60, 349–357.
| Calculating and interpreting forest fire intensities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boardman JW (1998) Post-ATREM polishing of AVIRIS apparent reflectance data using EFFORT: a lesson in accuracy versus precision. In ‘Proceedings of the Seventh Annual JPL Airborne Earth Science Workshop’, 12–14 January 1998, Pasadena, CA. (Ed. RO Green) NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory publication 97-21, vol. 1. (Pasadena, CA)
Cahoon DR, Stocks BJ, Levine JS, Cofer WR, Pierson JM (1994) Satellite analysis of the severe 1987 forest fires in northern China and south-east Siberia. Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 18 627–18 638.
| Satellite analysis of the severe 1987 forest fires in northern China and south-east Siberia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conard SG, Sukhinin AI, Stocks BJ, Cahoon DR, Davidenko EP, Ivanova GA (2002) Determining effects of area burned and fire severity on carbon cycling and emissions in Siberia. Climatic Change 55, 197–211.
| Determining effects of area burned and fire severity on carbon cycling and emissions in Siberia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XntVKqt7o%3D&md5=ec9fc099e1cdfa0b8d1fdc91829d4659CAS |
Cracknell AP (1998) Synergy in remote sensing: what’s in a pixel? International Journal of Remote Sensing 19, 2025–2047.
| Synergy in remote sensing: what’s in a pixel?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cressie NAC (1993) ‘Statistics for Spatial Data.’ (Wiley: New York)
de Groot WJ, Pritchard JM, Lynham TJ (2009) Forest floor fuel consumption and carbon emissions in Canadian boreal forest fires. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, 367–382.
| Forest floor fuel consumption and carbon emissions in Canadian boreal forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXjtlyntbs%3D&md5=ef5593fd02b43d87930c2e9ebb3587a1CAS |
Duffy PA, Epting J, Graham JM, Rupp TS, McGuire AD (2007) Analysis of Alaskan burn severity patterns using remotely sensed data. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 277–284.
| Analysis of Alaskan burn severity patterns using remotely sensed data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dyrness CT (1982) Control of depth to permafrost and soil temperature by the forest floor in black spruce/feathermoss communities. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Research Paper PNW-396. (Portland, OR)
Dyrness CT, Norum RA (1983) The effects of experimental fires on black spruce forest floors in interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 13, 879–893.
| The effects of experimental fires on black spruce forest floors in interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Epting J, Verbyla D, Sorbel B (2005) Evaluation of remotely sensed indices for assessing burn severity in interior Alaska using Landsat TM and ETM+. Remote Sensing of Environment 96, 328–339.
| Evaluation of remotely sensed indices for assessing burn severity in interior Alaska using Landsat TM and ETM+.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fenton N, Lecomte N, Legare S, Bergeron Y (2005) Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern Canada: potential factors and management implications. Forest Ecology and Management 213, 151–159.
| Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern Canada: potential factors and management implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flannigan MD, Van Wagner CE (1991) Climate change and wildfire in Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21, 66–72.
| Climate change and wildfire in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flannigan MD, Stocks BJ, Wotton MB (2000) Climate change and forest fires. The Science of the Total Environment 262, 221–229.
| Climate change and forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXotleru78%3D&md5=91498dd2c712b31b6b0c218e2d0fd9a0CAS | 11087028PubMed |
Flannigan MD, Logan KA, Amiro BD, Skinner WR, Stocks BJ (2005) Future area burned in Canada. Climatic Change 72, 1–16.
| Future area burned in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVyisrzM&md5=9036cc153cf5fd1c42da5d3a5ad13ff1CAS |
Foote MJ (1983) Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Research Paper PNW-307. (Portland, OR)
Frandsen WH (1997) Ignition probability of organic soils. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27, 1471–1477.
| Ignition probability of organic soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
French NHF, Kasischke ES, Johnson RD, Bourgeau-Chavez LL, Frick AL, Ustin SL (1996) Estimating fire-related carbon flux in Alaskan boreal forests using multisensor remote sensing data. In ‘Biomass Burning and Global Change’. (Ed. JS Levine) pp. 808–826. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
French NHF, Kasischke ES, Hall RJ, Murphy KA, Verbyla DL, Hoy EE, Allen JL (2008) Using Landsat data to assess fire and burn severity in the North American boreal forest region: an overview and summary of results. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 443–462.
| Using Landsat data to assess fire and burn severity in the North American boreal forest region: an overview and summary of results.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gao BC, Heidebrecht KB, Goetz AFH (1993) Derivation of scaled surface reflectances from AVIRIS data. Remote Sensing of Environment 44, 165–178.
| Derivation of scaled surface reflectances from AVIRIS data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gillett NP, Weaver AJ, Zwiers FW, Flannigan MD (2004) Detecting the effect of climate change on Canadian forest fires. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L18211
| Detecting the effect of climate change on Canadian forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gould WA, Hudak AT, González G, Hollingsworth T, Hollingsworth J (2008) Forest structure and downed woody debris in boreal, temperate, and tropical forest fragments. Ambio 37, 577–587.
| Forest structure and downed woody debris in boreal, temperate, and tropical forest fragments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19205181PubMed |
Greene DF, Macdonald SE, Haeussler S, Domenicano S, Noël J, Jayen K, Charron I, Gauthier S, Hunt S, Gielau ET, Bergeron Y, Swift L (2007) The reduction of organic-layer depth by wildfire in the North American boreal forest and its effect on tree recruitment by seed. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 1012–1023.
| The reduction of organic-layer depth by wildfire in the North American boreal forest and its effect on tree recruitment by seed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haining R (1990) ‘Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environmental Sciences.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Harden JW, Trumbore SE, Stocks BJ, Hirsch A, Gower ST, O’Neill KP, Kasischke ES (2000) The role of fire in the boreal carbon budget. Global Change Biology 6, 174–184.
| The role of fire in the boreal carbon budget.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harden JW, Manies KL, Neff JC, Turetsky MR (2006) Effects of wildfire and permafrost on soil organic matter and soil climate in interior Alaska. Global Change Biology 12, 2391–2403.
| Effects of wildfire and permafrost on soil organic matter and soil climate in interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoy EE, French NHF, Turetsky MR, Trigg SN, Kasischke ES (2008) Evaluating the potential of Landsat TM/ETM+ imagery for assessing fire severity in Alaskan black spruce forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 500–514.
| Evaluating the potential of Landsat TM/ETM+ imagery for assessing fire severity in Alaskan black spruce forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang C, Townshend JRG, Liang S, Kalluri SNV, DeFries RS (2002) Impact of a sensor’s point spread function on land cover characterization. Remote Sensing of Environment 80, 203–212.
| Impact of a sensor’s point spread function on land cover characterization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hudak AT, Brockett BH (2004) Mapping fire scars in a southern African savannah using Landsat imagery. International Journal of Remote Sensing 25, 3231–3243.
| Mapping fire scars in a southern African savannah using Landsat imagery.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hudak AT, Morgan P, Bobbitt MJ, Smith AMS, Lewis SA, Lentile LB, Robichaud PR, Clark JT, McKinley RA (2007) The relationship of multispectral satellite imagery to immediate fire effects. Fire Ecology 3, 64–90.
| The relationship of multispectral satellite imagery to immediate fire effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnstone J, Chapin FS (2006) Effects of soil burn severity on patterns of post-fire tree recruitment in boreal forests. Ecosystems 9, 14–31.
| Effects of soil burn severity on patterns of post-fire tree recruitment in boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnstone J, Kasischke ES (2005) Stand-level effects of soil burn severity on post-fire regeneration in a recently burned black spruce forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 2151–2163.
| Stand-level effects of soil burn severity on post-fire regeneration in a recently burned black spruce forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnstone JF, Hollingsworth TN, Chapin FS, III (2008) A key for predicting successional trajectories in black spruce stands of interior Alaska. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-767. (Portland, OR)
Kane ES, Valentine DW, Schuur EAG, Dutta K (2005) Soil carbon stabilization along climate and stand productivity gradients in black spruce forests of interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 2118–2129.
| Soil carbon stabilization along climate and stand productivity gradients in black spruce forests of interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmsFaqtA%3D%3D&md5=d3cf8c8fab3feb1f0ad4e5a9f6ab9527CAS |
Kane ES, Kasischke ES, Valentine DW, Turetsky MR, McGuire AD (2007) Topographic influences on wildfire consumption of soil organic carbon in interior Alaska: implications for black carbon accumulation. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, G03017
| Topographic influences on wildfire consumption of soil organic carbon in interior Alaska: implications for black carbon accumulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, Johnstone JF (2005) Variation in post-fire organic layer thickness in a black spruce forest complex in interior Alaska and its effects on soil temperature and moisture. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 2164–2177.
| Variation in post-fire organic layer thickness in a black spruce forest complex in interior Alaska and its effects on soil temperature and moisture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, Turetsky MR (2006) Recent changes in fire regime across the North American boreal region – spatial and temporal patters of burning across Canada and Alaska. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L09703
| Recent changes in fire regime across the North American boreal region – spatial and temporal patters of burning across Canada and Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, Christensen NL, Stocks BL (1995) Fire, global warming, and the carbon balance of boreal forests. Ecological Applications 5, 437–451.
| Fire, global warming, and the carbon balance of boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, French NHF, Borgeau-Chavex LL, Christensen NL (1995) Estimating release of carbon from 1990 and 1991 forest fires in Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 2941–2951.
| Estimating release of carbon from 1990 and 1991 forest fires in Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXls1Kiu7g%3D&md5=a6c9d3a7f6608f9678c5bf955f948e57CAS |
Kasischke ES, Bourgeau-Chavez LL, Johnstone JF (2007) Assessing spatial and temporal variations in surface soil moisture in fire-disturbed black spruce forests in interior Alaska using spaceborne synthetic aperture radar imagery – implications for post-fire tree recruitment. Remote Sensing of Environment 108, 42–58.
| Assessing spatial and temporal variations in surface soil moisture in fire-disturbed black spruce forests in interior Alaska using spaceborne synthetic aperture radar imagery – implications for post-fire tree recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasischke ES, Turetsky MR, Ottmar RD, French NHF, Hoy EH, Kane ES (2008) Evaluation of the Composite Burn Index for assessing fire severity in Alaska black spruce forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 515–526.
| Evaluation of the Composite Burn Index for assessing fire severity in Alaska black spruce forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Key CH, Benson NC (2005) Landscape assessment: remote sensing of severity, the Normalized Burn Ratio, and ground measure of severity, the Composite Burn Index. In ‘FIREMON: Fire Effects Monitoring and Inventory System’. (Eds DC Lutes, RE Keane, JF Caratti, CH Key, NC Benson, S Sutherland, LJ Gangi) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-164-CD: LA1–51. (Ogden, UT)
Kokaly RF, Rockwell BW, Haire SL, King TVV (2007) Characterization of post-fire surface cover, soils, and burn severity at the Cerro Grande Fire, New Mexico, using hyperspectral and multispectral remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment 106, 305–325.
| Characterization of post-fire surface cover, soils, and burn severity at the Cerro Grande Fire, New Mexico, using hyperspectral and multispectral remote sensing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kushida K, Isaev AP, Takao G, Maximov TC, Fukada M (2007) Remote sensing of total and surface burn ratios following a wildfire in East Siberia using 30 m–1 km-resolution images. Eurasian Journal of Forest Research 10–1, 105–114..
Landmann T (2003) Characterizing sub-pixel Landsat ETM+ fire severity on experimental fires in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 99, 357–360..
Lentile LB, Morgan P, Hudak AT, Bobbitt MJ, Lewis SA, Smith AMS, Robichaud PR (2007) Post-fire burn severity and vegetation response following eight large wildfires across the western United States. Fire Ecology 3, 91–108.
| Post-fire burn severity and vegetation response following eight large wildfires across the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lentile L, Morgan P, Hardy C, Hudak A, Means R, Ottmar R, Robichaud P, Kennedy Sutherland E, Szymokiak J, Way F, Fites-Kaufmann J, Lewis S, Mathews E, Shovic H, Ryan K (2007b) Value and challenges of conducting rapid response research on wildland fires. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-193. (Fort Collins, CO)
Lewis SA, Lentile LB, Hudak AT, Robichaud PR, Morgan P, Bobbitt MJ (2007) Mapping ground cover using hyperspectral remote sensing after the 2003 Simi and Old wildfires in southern California. Fire Ecology 3, 109–128.
| Mapping ground cover using hyperspectral remote sensing after the 2003 Simi and Old wildfires in southern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Michalek JL, French NHF, Kasischke ES, Johnson RD, Colwell JE (2000) Using Landsat TM data to estimate carbon release from burned biomass in an Alaskan spruce forest complex. International Journal of Remote Sensing 21, 323–338.
| Using Landsat TM data to estimate carbon release from burned biomass in an Alaskan spruce forest complex.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miyanishi K, Johnson EA (2002) Process and patterns of duff consumption in the mixedwood boreal forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32, 1285–1295.
| Process and patterns of duff consumption in the mixedwood boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy KA, Reynolds JH, Koltun JM (2008) Evaluating the ability of the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR) to predict ecologically significant burn severity in Alaskan boreal forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 490–499.
| Evaluating the ability of the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR) to predict ecologically significant burn severity in Alaskan boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy PJ, Mudd JP, Stocks BJ, Kasischke ES, Barry D, Alexander ME, French NF (2000) Historical fire records in the North American boreal forest. In ‘Fire, Climate Change, and Carbon Cycling in the Boreal Forest’. (Eds ES Kasischke, BJ Stock) pp. 274–288. (Springer-Verlag: New York)
Nguyen-Xuan T, Bergeron Y, Simard D, Fyles JW, Pare D (2000) The importance of forest floor disturbance in the early regeneration patterns of the boreal forest of western central Quebec: a wildfire versus logging comparison. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30, 1353–1364.
| The importance of forest floor disturbance in the early regeneration patterns of the boreal forest of western central Quebec: a wildfire versus logging comparison.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Donnell JA, Turetsky MR, Harden JW, Manies KL, Pruett LE, Shetler G, Neff JC (2009) Interactive effects of fire, soil climate, and moss on CO2 fluxes in black spruce ecosystems of interior Alaska. Ecosystems 12, 57–72.
| Interactive effects of fire, soil climate, and moss on CO2 fluxes in black spruce ecosystems of interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsFSkurg%3D&md5=4022cbe41df1e7738791668affae2caeCAS |
O’Neill KP, Kasischke ES, Richter DD (2002) Environmental controls on soil CO2 flux following fire in black spruce, white spruce, and aspen stands of interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32, 1525–1541.
| Environmental controls on soil CO2 flux following fire in black spruce, white spruce, and aspen stands of interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Neill KP, Kasischke ES, Richter DD (2003) Seasonal and decadal patterns of soil carbon uptake and emission along an age sequence of burned black spruce stands in interior Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 8155
| Seasonal and decadal patterns of soil carbon uptake and emission along an age sequence of burned black spruce stands in interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ottmar RD, Sandberg DV (2003) Predicting forest floor consumption from wildland fire in boreal forests of Alaska – preliminary results. In ‘Proceedings from Fire Conference 2000: the First National Congress on Fire Ecology, Prevention, and Management’, 27 November–1 December 2000, San Diego, CA. (Eds KEM Galley, RC Klinger, NG Sugihara) pp. 218–224. (Tall Timbers Research Station: Tallahassee, FL)
Overpeck JT, Bartlein PJ, Webb T (1991) Potential magnitude of future vegetation change in eastern North America: comparisons with the past. Science 254, 692–695.
| Potential magnitude of future vegetation change in eastern North America: comparisons with the past.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cvivVOhuw%3D%3D&md5=5482cc8cd77d84f9dd2f79ee9a09de40CAS | 17774796PubMed |
R Development Core Team (2004) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria) Available at http://www.R-project.org [Verified 12 June 2009]
Richards JA, Jia X (1999) Interpretation of hyperspectral image data. In ‘Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: an Introduction’. pp. 313–337. (Springer: New York)
Roberts DA, Smith MO, Adams JB (1993) Green vegetation, non-photosynthetic vegetation and soils in AVIRIS data. Remote Sensing of Environment 44, 255–269.
| Green vegetation, non-photosynthetic vegetation and soils in AVIRIS data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robichaud PR, Lewis SA, Laes DYM, Hudak AT, Kokaly RF, Zamudio JA (2007) Post-fire soil burn severity mapping with hyperspectral image unmixing. Remote Sensing of Environment 108, 467–480.
| Post-fire soil burn severity mapping with hyperspectral image unmixing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rogan J, Franklin J (2001) Mapping wildfire burn severity in southern California forests and shrublands using Enhanced Thematic Mapper imagery. Geocarto International 16, 91–106.
| Mapping wildfire burn severity in southern California forests and shrublands using Enhanced Thematic Mapper imagery.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
RSAC (2005) Remote Sensing Applications Center Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) imagery support. USDA Forest Service, Remote Sensing Applications Center. (Salt Lake City, UT) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/rsac/baer/ [Verified 17 November 2008]
Rupp TS, Chapin FS, Starfield AM (2000) Response of subarctic vegetation to transient climate change on the Seward Peninsula in north-west Alaska. Global Change Biology 6, 541–555.
| Response of subarctic vegetation to transient climate change on the Seward Peninsula in north-west Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sandberg DV, Ottmar RD, Peterson JL, Core J (2002) Wildland fire on ecosystems: effects of fire on air. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-42-Vol. 5. (Ogden, UT)
SAS Institute Inc. (2002) ‘SAS 9.1.3 Service Pack 4.’ (Cary, NC)
Schuur EAG, Bockheim J, Canadell J, Euskirchen E, Field CB, Goryachkin SV, Hagemann S, Kuhry P, Lafleur P, Lee H, Mazhitova G, Nelson FE, Rinke A, Romanovsky VE, Shiklomanov N, Tarnocai C, Venevsky S, Vogel JG, Zimov SA (2008) Vulnerability of permafrost carbon to climate change: implications for the global carbon cycle. BioScience 58, 701–714.
| Vulnerability of permafrost carbon to climate change: implications for the global carbon cycle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shetler G, Turetsky MR, Kane E, Kasischke E (2008) Sphagnum mosses limit total carbon consumption in Alaskan black spruce forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38, 2328–2336.
| Sphagnum mosses limit total carbon consumption in Alaskan black spruce forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXptFynt7o%3D&md5=68c20754a0abf1df965de2b3a711a3e5CAS |
Smith AMS, Hudak AT (2005) Estimating combustion of large downed woody debris from residual white ash. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, 245–248.
| Estimating combustion of large downed woody debris from residual white ash.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith AMS, Wooster MJ, Drake NA, Dipotso FM, Falkowski MJ, Hudak AT (2005) Testing the potential of multi-spectral remote sensing for retrospectively estimating fire severity in African savannahs. Remote Sensing of Environment 97, 92–115.
| Testing the potential of multi-spectral remote sensing for retrospectively estimating fire severity in African savannahs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith AMS, Lentile LB, Hudak AT, Morgan P (2007) Evaluation of linear spectral unmixing and ΔNBR for predicting post-fire recovery in a North American ponderosa pine forest. International Journal of Remote Sensing 28, 5159–5166.
| Evaluation of linear spectral unmixing and ΔNBR for predicting post-fire recovery in a North American ponderosa pine forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Soja AJ, Tchebakova NM, French NHF, Flannigan MD, Shugart HH, Stocks BJ, Sukhinin AI, Parfenova EI, Chapin FS, Stackouse PW (2007) Climate-induced boreal forest change: predictions versus current observations. Global and Planetary Climate Change 56, 274–296.
| Climate-induced boreal forest change: predictions versus current observations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stocks BJ (1991) The extent and impact of forest fires in northern circumpolar countries. In ‘Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications’. (Ed. JS Levine) pp. 197–202. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Swanson DK (1996) Susceptibility of permafrost soils to deep thaw after forest fires in interior Alaska, USA, and some ecologic implications. Arctic and Alpine Research 28, 217–227.
| Susceptibility of permafrost soils to deep thaw after forest fires in interior Alaska, USA, and some ecologic implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tan Z, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Liu S, Howard SM (2007) An estimate of carbon emissions from 2004 wildfires across Alaskan Yukon River Basin. Carbon Balance and Management 2, 12
| An estimate of carbon emissions from 2004 wildfires across Alaskan Yukon River Basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18093322PubMed |
Theseira MA, Thomas G, Taylor JC, Gemmell F, Varjo J (2003) Sensitivity of mixture modeling to end-member selection. International Journal of Remote Sensing 24, 1559–1575.
| Sensitivity of mixture modeling to end-member selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Townshend JRG, Huang C, Kalluri SNV, DeFries RS, Liang S (2000) Beware of per-pixel characterization of land cover. International Journal of Remote Sensing 21, 839–843.
| Beware of per-pixel characterization of land cover.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van Wagtendonk JW, Root RR, Key CH (2004) Comparison of AVIRIS and Landsat ETM+ detection capabilities for burn severity. Remote Sensing of Environment 92, 397–408.
| Comparison of AVIRIS and Landsat ETM+ detection capabilities for burn severity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
