Register      Login
Pacific Conservation Biology Pacific Conservation Biology Society
A journal dedicated to conservation and wildlife management in the Pacific region.
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > PC > PC22033 > Fulltext
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contents Vol 30(1)

Native flora receive more visits than exotics from bees, especially native bees, in an urbanised biodiversity hotspot

Kit S. Prendergast https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1164-6099 A *
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Curtin University, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia.

* Correspondence to: Kitprendergast21@gmail.com

Handling Editor: Mike Calver

Pacific Conservation Biology 30, PC22033 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC22033
Submitted: 31 August 2022  Accepted: 8 May 2023  Published: 6 June 2023

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing

Abstract

Context

Identifying floral resources preferred by bee assemblages is important for their conservation.

Aims

Here, I assess the association of flowering plant community composition, with that of honey bees and native bee abundance and diversity. I investigate flower preferences in terms of plant origin (native or exotic), and evaluate niche breadth, of introduced honey bees and native bee taxa. I also consider if habitat influences these patterns.

Methods

This was evaluated through recording flower visitation by honey bees and native bees in the urbanised region of the south-west Western Australian Floristic Region in seven bushland remnants and seven residential gardens over 2 years.

Key results

Both native bees and honey bees visited more native than exotic flora, however native bees visited a higher proportion of native flora than honey bees. The 10-most visited plants by native bees were exclusively native, whereas for honey bees, although their 10-most visited plants were predominantly native plant species, this selection also included exotic plant species. Niche breadth was broader in bushland remnants, indicating a greater range of preferred flora in bushland remnants. Honey bees however visited more plant families in residential gardens. With increased honey bee abundance, this was associated with native bees expanding their niche breadth, which may be a response to reduce competition. Flower preference patterns and niche breadth often differed between habitats, indicating that foraging patterns may be mediated by habitat context.

Conclusion

Native flora are preferred by bees, and native bees have relatively restricted flower preferences, especially compared with honey bees.

Implications

High proportions of preferred native flora are needed to support diverse native bee assemblages in urban areas.

Keywords: conservation, honey bees, Hymenoptera, native bees, niche breadth, pollinators, urbanisation, wild bees, wildflowers.

References

Abe T, Wada K, Kato Y, Makino S, Okochi I (2011) Alien pollinator promotes invasive mutualism in an insular pollination system. Biological Invasions 13, 957-967.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Anderson MJ (2014) Permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA). In ‘Wiley statsref: Statistics reference online’. (Eds N Balakrishnan, T Colton, B Everitt, W Piegorsch, F Ruggeri, JL Teugels) pp. 1–15. (John Wiley & Sons)

ANPSA (2020) Australian Native Plants Society (Australia). Available at http://anpsa.org.au/ [accessed 1 August 2022]

Armstrong JA (1979) Biotic pollination mechanisms in the Australian flora – a review. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17, 467-508.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barrett R, Tay EP (2016) ‘Perth plants: A field guide to the bushland and coastal flora of kings park and bold park.’ (CSIRO PUBLISHING)

Batley M, Hogendoorn K (2009) Diversity and conservation status of native Australian bees. Apidologie 40(3), 347-354.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brooks ME, Kristensen K, van Benthem KJ, Magnusson A, Berg CW, Nielsen A, Skaug HJ, Mächler M, Bolker BM (2017) Glmmtmb balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R journal 9, 378-400.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brown MJF, Paxton RJ (2009) The conservation of bees: a global perspective. Apidologie 40, 410-416.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Buchholz S, Kowarik I (2019) Urbanisation modulates plant-pollinator interactions in invasive vs. native plant species. Scientific Reports 9, 6375.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cane JH (2005) Bees, pollination, and the challenges of sprawl. In ‘Nature in fragments: the legacy of sprawl’. (Eds EA Johnson, MW Klemens) pp. 109–124. (Columbia University Press: New York)

Cane JH, Sipes S (2006) Characterizing floral specialization by bees: analytical methods and a revised lexicon for oligolecty. In ‘Plant–pollinator interactions: from specialization to generalization’. (Ed. NM Waser, J Ollerton) pp. 99–122. (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, USA)

Carvell C, Osborne JL, Bourke AFG, Freeman SN, Pywell RF, Heard M (2011) Bumble bee species’ responses to a targeted conservation measure depend on landscape context and habitat quality. Ecological Applications 21, 1760-1771.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Clark KR, Gorley RN (2015) PRIMER v7: User Manual/Tutorial PRIMER-E: Plymouth. PRIMER-E Ltd, Devon, UK.

Coleman RS (1962) Bee farming: Honey flora of western australia. Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, Series 4 3, 649-664.
| Google Scholar |

Comba L, Corbet SA, Barron A, Bird A, Collinge S, Miyazaki N, Powell M (1999) Garden flowers: Insect visits and the floral reward of horticulturally-modified variants. Annals of Botany 83, 73-86.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Corbet SA, Bee J, Dasmahapatra K, Gale S, Gorringe E, La Ferla B, Moorhouse T, Trevail A, Van Bergen Y, Vorontsova M (2001) Native or exotic? Double or single? Evaluating plants for pollinator-friendly gardens. Annals of Botany 87, 219-232.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cuda JP, Habeck DH, Hight SD, Medal JC, Pedrosa-Macedo JH (2004) Brazilian Peppertree, Schinus terebinthfolius: Sumac Family-Anacardiaceae. In ‘Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States’. (Eds EM Combs, JK Clark, GL Piper, AF Cofrancesco Jr), pp. 439–441. (Oregon State University Press: Corvallis, OR, USA)

de Camargo MGG, Lunau K, Batalha MA, Brings S, de Brito VLG, Morellato LPC (2019) How flower colour signals allure bees and hummingbirds: a community-level test of the bee avoidance hypothesis. New Phytologist 222, 1112-1122.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

de Ibarra NH, Langridge KV, Vorobyev M (2015) More than colour attraction: behavioural functions of flower patterns. Current Opinion in Insect Science 12, 64-70.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Decourtye A, Mader E, Desneux N (2010) Landscape enhancement of floral resources for honey bees in agro-ecosystems. Apidologie 41(3), 264-277.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Attractions (2022) Threatened and Priority Fauna List. Threatened animals. Available at https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/plants-and-animals/threatened-species-and-communities/threatened-animals

Detzel A, Wink M (1993) Attraction, deterrence or intoxication of bees (Apis mellifera) by plant allelochemicals. Chemoecology 4, 8-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dormann CF, Elith J, Bacher S, Buchmann C, Carl G, Carré G, Marquéz JRG, Gruber B, Lafourcade B, Leitão PJ, Münkemüller T, McClean C, Osborne PE, Reineking B, Schröder B, Skidmore AK, Zurell D, Lautenbach S (2013) Collinearity: a review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography 36, 27-46.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Drossart M, Michez D, Vanderplanck M (2017) Invasive plants as potential food resource for native pollinators: a case study with two invasive species and a generalist bumble bee. Scientific Reports 7, 16242.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dyer AG, Garcia JE, Shrestha M, Lunau K (2015) Seeing in colour: a hundred years of studies on bee vision since the work of the Nobel laureate Karl von Frisch. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 127, 66-72.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dötterl S, Vereecken NJ (2010) The chemical ecology and evolution of bee–flower interactions: a review and perspectives. Canadian Journal of Zoology 88, 668-697.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Eckhardt M, Haider M, Dorn S, Müller A (2014) Pollen mixing in pollen generalist solitary bees: a possible strategy to complement or mitigate unfavourable pollen properties? Journal of Animal Ecology 83, 588-597.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Egerer M, Cecala JM, Cohen H (2020) Wild bee conservation within urban gardens and nurseries: effects of local and landscape management. Sustainability 12, 293.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fontaine C, Collin CL, Dajoz I (2008) Generalist foraging of pollinators: diet expansion at high density. Journal of Ecology 96, 1002-1010.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Frankie GW, Thorp RW, Schindler M, Hernandez J, Ertter B, Rizzardi M (2005) Ecological patterns of bees and their host ornamental flowers in two northern california cities. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 78, 227-246.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Franklin E, Carroll T, Blake D, Rickard K, Diaz A (2018) Bumble bee forager abundance on lowland heaths is predicated by specific floral availability rather than the presence of honey bee foragers: evidence for forage resource partitioning. Journal of Pollination Ecology 24, 172-179.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Frias BED, Barbosa CD, Lourenço AP (2016) Pollen nutrition in honey bees (Apis mellifera): Impact on adult health. Apidologie 47, 15-25.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Garbuzov M, Alton K, Ratnieks FLW (2017) Most ornamental plants on sale in garden centres are unattractive to flower-visiting insects. PeerJ 5, e3066.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Giannini TC, Garibaldi LA, Acosta AL, Silva JS, Maia KP, Saraiva AM, Guimarães PR, Jr, Kleinert AM (2015) Native and non-native supergeneralist bee species have different effects on plant-bee networks. PLoS ONE 10, e0137198.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Goulson D, Derwent LC (2004) Synergistic interactions between an exotic honeybee and an exotic weed: pollination of Lantana camara in australia. Weed Research 44, 195-202.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Government of Western Australia (2019) 2018 Statewide Vegetation Statistics incorporating the CAR Reserve Analysis (Simplified Report). Current as of March 2019. WA Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Perth. Available at https://catalogue.data.wa.gov.au/dataset/dbca-statewide-vegetation-statistics [Accessed 10 November 2019]

Güneralp B, McDonald RI, Fragkias M, Goodness J, Marcotullio PJ, Seto KC (2013) Urbanization forecasts, effects on land use, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. In ‘Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem services: challenges and opportunities’. (Eds T Elmqvist, M Fragkias, J Goodness, B Guneralp, PJ Marcotullio, RI McDonald, S Parnell, M Schewenius, M Sendstad, KC Seto, C Wilkinson) pp. 437–452. (Springer)

Harrison XA (2014) Using observation-level random effects to model overdispersion in count data in ecology and evolution. PeerJ 2, e616.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hegland SJ, Dunne J, Nielsen A, Memmott J (2010) How to monitor ecological communities cost-efficiently: The example of plant–pollinator networks. Biological Conservation 143, 2092-2101.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Heinrich B (1976) Resource partitioning among some eusocial insects: bumblebees. Ecology 57, 874-889.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hopper SD (2009) OCBIL theory: towards an integrated understanding of the evolution, ecology and conservation of biodiversity on old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes. Plant and Soil 322, 49-86.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hopper SD, Lambers H, Silveira FAO, Fiedler PL (2021) OCBIL theory examined: reassessing evolution, ecology and conservation in the world’s ancient, climatically buffered and infertile landscapes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, 266-296.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Houston TF (2000) ‘Native bees on wildflowers in Western Australia.’ (Western Australian Insect Study Society)

Houston TF (2018) ‘A guide to the native bees of Australia.’ (CSIRO Publishing)

Hoyle HE (2021) Climate-adapted, traditional or cottage-garden planting? Public perceptions, values and socio-cultural drivers in a designed garden setting. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 65, 127362.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hudewenz A, Klein A-M (2015) Red mason bees cannot compete with honey bees for floral resources in a cage experiment. Ecology and Evolution 5, 5049-5056.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hussey BMJ, Keighery GJ, Cousens RD, Dodd J, Lloyd SG (1997) ‘Western weeds: A guide to the weeds of Western Australia.’ (The Plant Protection Society Of Western Australia (Inc.): Perth)

Hülsmann M, von Wehrden H, Klein A-M, Leonhardt SD (2015) Plant diversity and composition compensate for negative effects of urbanization on foraging bumble bees. Apidologie 46, 760-770.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Jeannerod L, Carlier A, Schatz B, Daise C, Richel A, Agnan Y, Baude M, Jacquemart A-L (2022) Some bee-pollinated plants provide nutritionally incomplete pollen amino acid resources to their pollinators. PLoS ONE 17, e0269992.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Korner-Nievergelt F, Roth T, von Felten S, Guélat J, Almasi B, Korner-Nievergelt P (2015) ‘Bayesian data analysis in ecology using linear models with R, BUGS and STAN.’ (Elsevier)

Krebs CJ (2009) ‘Ecology: The experimental analysis of distribution and abundance.’ (Pearson Education)

Lambers H (2014) ‘Plant life on the sandplains in southwest australia.’ (UWA Publishing: Crawley, Western Australia)

Lenth R (2022) emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means. R package version 1.7.5. Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeans.

Lüdecke D (2019) Sjstats: Statistical functions for regression models (version 0.17.7). Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=sjstats

Manning RJ (2011) ‘Research into Western Australian honeys.’ (WA Department of Agriculture and Food: Perth, Western Australia)

Matteson KC, Langellotto GA (2011) Small scale additions of native plants fail to increase beneficial insect richness in urban gardens. Insect Conservation and Diversity 4, 89-98.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mačukanović-Jocić M, Stevanović ZD, Mladenović M, Jocić G (2011) Flower morphophysiology of selected Lamiaceae species in relation to pollinator attraction. Journal of Apicultural Research 50, 89-101.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McKinney ML (2008) Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosystems 11, 161-176.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Michener CD (2007) ‘The bees of the World.’ 2nd edn. (Johns Hopkins: Baltimore)

Miller AE, Brosi BJ, Magnacca K, Daily GC, Pejchar L (2015) Pollen carried by native and nonnative bees in the large-scale reforestation of pastureland in Hawai‘i: implications for pollination. Pacific Science 69, 67-79.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Montero-Castaño A, Vilà M (2017) Influence of the honeybee and trait similarity on the effect of a non-native plant on pollination and network rewiring. Functional Ecology 31, 142-152.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nakagawa S, Schielzeth H (2013) A general and simple method for obtaining R2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4, 133-142.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nicholls E, Hempel de Ibarra N (2017) Assessment of pollen rewards by foraging bees. Functional Ecology 31, 76-87.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nicolson SW (2022) Sweet solutions: nectar chemistry and quality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 377, 20210163.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Parachnowitsch AL, Manson JS, Sletvold N (2019) Evolutionary ecology of nectar. Annals of Botany 123, 247-261.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pardee GL, Ballare KM, Neff JL, Do LQ, Ojeda D, Bienenstock EJ, Brosi BJ, Grubesic TH, Miller JA, Tong D, Jha S (2023) Local and landscape factors influence plant-pollinator networks and bee foraging behavior across an urban corridor. Land 12, 362.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pawelek J, Frankie GW, Thorp RW, Przybylski M (2009) Modification of a community garden to attract native bee pollinators in urban San Luis Obispo, California. Cities and the Environment (CATE) 2, 7.
| Google Scholar |

Petanidou T, Kallimanis AS, Tzanopoulos J, Sgardelis SP, Pantis JD (2008) Long-term observation of a pollination network: fluctuation in species and interactions, relative invariance of network structure and implications for estimates of specialization. Ecology Letters 11, 564-575.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pianka ER (2011) The ecological niche. In ‘Evolutionary ecology’. (Ed. ER Pianka) pp. 267–293. (Eric R. Pianka)

Potts SG, Vulliamy B, Dafni A, Ne’eman G, Willmer P (2003) Linking bees and flowers: How do floral communities structure pollinator communities? Ecology 84, 2628-2642.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS (2020a) Urban native bee assemblages and the impact of the introduced European honey bee on plant-pollinator networks in the southwest Australian biodiversity hotspot. PhD thesis, Curtin University of Technology. Available at https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/84947

Prendergast K (2020b) Plant-pollinator network interaction matrices and flowering plant species composition in urban bushland remnants and residential gardens in the southwest Western Australian biodiversity hotspot. Curtin University. Available at https://doi.org/10.25917/5f3a0aa235fda

Prendergast KS (2020c) Native Bee Survey of Lake Claremont Nov 2019-Feb 2020. Friends of Lake Claremont, Lake Claremont, Western Australia.

Prendergast K (2020d) Species of native bees in the urbanised region of the southwest Western Australian biodiversity hotspot. Curtin University. Available at https://doi.org/10.25917/5ee09df795b7c

Prendergast K (2021a) City of Bayswater Native Bee Surveys November – February 2020/21. City of Bayswater, Western Australia.

Prendergast K (2021b) Herdsman Lake Native Bee Report: Surveys of the native bee assemblages of Herdsman Lake February and November 2020. WA Gould League, Herdsman Lake, Western Australia.

Prendergast K (2021c) Kalamunda Native Bee Surveys Spring-Summer 2020/21 at Ledger Hill Reserve, Maida Vale Reserve, and Poison Gully Reserve. Kalamunda, Western Australia.

Prendergast KS (2022a) The influence of plant species, origin and color of garden nursery flowers on the number and composition of pollinating insect visitors. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 38, 21-40.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast K (2022b) City of Bayswater Native Bee Surveys October – February 2021/22. City of Bayswater, Western Australia.

Prendergast KS (2022c) Leioproctus zephyr Prendergast (Hymenoptera, Colletidae, Leioproctus), an oligoletic new bee species with a distinctive clypeus. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 93, 167-188.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Ollerton J (2021) Plant-pollinator networks in Australian urban bushland remnants are not structurally equivalent to those in residential gardens. Urban Ecosystems 24, 973-987.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Ollerton J (2022) Spatial and temporal scale of analysis alter conclusions about the effects of urbanisation on plant–pollinator networks. Arthropod-Plant Interactions 16, 553-565.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Dixon KW, Bateman PW (2021) Interactions between the introduced european honey bee and native bees in urban areas varies by year, habitat type and native bee guild. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, 725-743.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Dixon KW, Bateman PW (2022a) A global review of determinants of native bee assemblages in urbanised landscapes. Insect Conservation and Diversity 15, 385-405.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Tomlinson S, Dixon KW, Bateman PW, Menz MHM (2022b) Urban native vegetation remnants support more diverse native bee communities than residential gardens in Australia’s southwest biodiversity hotspot. Biological Conservation 265, 109408.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prendergast KS, Dixon KW, Bateman PW (2023) The evidence for and against competition between the European honey bee and Australian native bees. Pacific Conservation Biology 29, 89-109.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pyke GH (1984) Optimal foraging theory: a critical review. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15, 523-575.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Richardson DM, Allsopp N, D’antonio CM, Milton SJ, Rejmanek M (2000) Plant invasions—the role of mutualisms. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 75, 65-93.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rollin O, Bretagnolle V, Decourtye A, Aptel J, Michel N, Vaissière BE, Henry M (2013) Differences of floral resource use between honey bees and wild bees in an intensive farming system. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 179, 78-86.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rollings R, Goulson D (2019) Quantifying the attractiveness of garden flowers for pollinators. Journal of Insect Conservation 23, 803-817.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Roubik DW, Moreno JE, Vergara C, Wittmann D (1986) Sporadic food competition with the African honey bee: projected impact on neotropical social bees. Journal of Tropical Ecology 2(2), 97-111.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Salisbury A, Armitage J, Bostock H, Perry J, Tatchell M, Thompson K (2015) Editor’s choice: enhancing gardens as habitats for flower-visiting aerial insects (pollinators): should I plant native or exotic species? Journal of Applied Ecology 52, 1156-1164.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schafer J, Opgen-Rhein R, Zuber V, Ahdesmaki M, Silva APB, Strimmer K. (2017) corpcor: Efficient Estimation of Covariance and (Partial) Correlation. R package version 1.6.9. Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=corpcor

Sedivy C, Müller A, Dorn S (2011) Closely related pollen generalist bees differ in their ability to develop on the same pollen diet: evidence for physiological adaptations to digest pollen. Functional Ecology 25, 718-725.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Smith EP (1982) Niche breadth, resource availability, and inference. Ecology 63, 1675-1681.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stenhouse RN (2004) Fragmentation and internal disturbance of native vegetation reserves in the Perth metropolitan area, Western Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning 68, 389-401.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stevenson PC (2020) For antagonists and mutualists: the paradox of insect toxic secondary metabolites in nectar and pollen. Phytochemistry Reviews 19, 603-614.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sydenham MAK, Moe SR, Totland Ø, Eldegard K (2015) Does multi-level environmental filtering determine the functional and phylogenetic composition of wild bee species assemblages? Ecography 38, 140-153.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Thomson DM (2016) Local bumble bee decline linked to recovery of honey bees, drought effects on floral resources. Ecology Letters 19, 1247-1255.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Threlfall CG, Walker K, Williams NSG, Hahs AK, Mata L, Stork N, Livesley SJ (2015) The conservation value of urban green space habitats for Australian native bee communities. Biological Conservation 187, 240-248.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tiedeken EJ, Stout JC, Stevenson PC, Wright GA (2014) Bumblebees are not deterred by ecologically relevant concentrations of nectar toxins. Journal of Experimental Biology 217, 1620-1625.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Turo KJ, Gardiner MM (2019) From potential to practical: conserving bees in urban public green spaces. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 17, 167-175.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vanbergen AJ, Espíndola A, Aizen MA (2018) Risks to pollinators and pollination from invasive alien species. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2, 16-25.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vanderplanck M, Moerman R, Rasmont P, Lognay G, Wathelet B, Wattiez R, Michez D (2014) How does pollen chemistry impact development and feeding behaviour of polylectic bees? PLoS ONE 9, e86209.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Waser NM, Ollerton J (2006) ‘Plant–pollinator interactions: from specialization to generalization.’ (University of Chicago Press)

Weiner CN, Hilpert A, Werner M, Linsenmair KE, Blüthgen N (2010) Pollen amino acids and flower specialisation in solitary bees. Apidologie 41, 476-487.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wollaeger HM, Getter KL, Behe BK (2015) Consumer preferences for traditional, neonicotinoid-free, bee-friendly, or biological control pest management practices on floriculture crops. HortScience Horts 50, 721-732.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wood TJ, Holland JM, Goulson D (2015) Pollinator-friendly management does not increase the diversity of farmland bees and wasps. Biological Conservation 187, 120-126.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wood TJ, Holland JM, Goulson D (2017) Providing foraging resources for solitary bees on farmland: current schemes for pollinators benefit a limited suite of species. Journal of Applied Ecology 54, 323-333.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |