The secret life of Fairy Terns: breeding chronology and life history observations of Sternula nereis nereis in south-western Australia
C. N. Greenwell
A B E , J. N. Dunlop A C , R. Admiraal D and N. R. Loneragan A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Environmental and Conservation Sciences, College of SHEE, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.
B Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Ecosystems, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.
C Conservation Council of Western Australia, Lotteries West House, 2 Delhi Street, West Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
D Victoria University of Wellington, School of Mathematics and Statistics, Kelburn Parade, Wellington 6012, New Zealand.
E Corresponding author. Email: c.greenwell@murdoch.edu.au
Pacific Conservation Biology 27(2) 143-154 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC20056
Submitted: 25 June 2020 Accepted: 10 September 2020 Published: 6 October 2020
Abstract
This research describes the breeding ecology, behaviour and substrate preferences of the Australian Fairy Tern, Sternula nereis nereis, in four colonies around Perth, Western Australia between 2018 and 2020. Extensive field observations, supported by a bird banding study and sunrise to sunset video recording were used at colony and roosting sites to determine the processes of mating, colony formation, egg-laying and incubation periods, post-hatching care and breeding success (fledglings per pair). At a colony in North Fremantle, the median nest spacing was 0.71 m (mean ± s.e. = 0.89 ± 0.05 m), which increased over time. Birds establishing nests within a week of the first eggs being laid selected sites with significantly higher percentage beach shell cover (73.5 ± 4.5%) than those laying later in the season (58.2 ± 7.9%) and on average, birds selected sites with higher shell cover (64.9 ± 2.8%, n = 114) than a random sample of sites within the colony (53.7 ± 4.4%, n = 44). Incubation periods ranged from 17 to 26 days (n = 86, mean = 21 ± 0.17 days). Incubation shift duration was highly variable, with both sexes contributing, almost equally to the care of the brood (mean = 1.27 ± 6.11 h). Chicks fledged 21–23 (mean = 22 ± 0.21, n = 10) days following hatching, with all banded juveniles leaving the colony site within 8 days of fledgling. The information gained from this research helps inform conservation strategies for this vulnerable species, where management interventions are frequently necessary to prevent population decline.
Keywords: animal behaviour, Australian Fairy Tern, biodiversity conservation, bird breeding, conservation biology, habitat selection, management interventions, population decline, seabirds, threatened species, vulnerable species, wildlife management.
References
Atwood, J. L. (1986). Delayed nocturnal occupation of breeding colonies by Least Terns (Sterna antillarum). Auk 1, 242–244.Austin, O. L. (1947). A study of the mating of the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo). Bird-Banding 18, 1.
| A study of the mating of the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Austin, O. L. (1951). Group adherence in the Common Tern. Bird-Banding 22, 1–15.
| Group adherence in the Common Tern.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baling, M., Brunton, D. (2005). ‘Conservation genetics of the New Zealand Fairy Tern.’ Aukland UniServices Limited, University of Auckland (Auckland, New Zealand.)
Baling, M., Jeffries, D., Barré, N., and Brunton, D. H. (2009). A survey of Fairy Tern (Sterna nereis) breeding colonies in the Southern Lagoon, New Caledonia. Emu 109, 57–61.
| A survey of Fairy Tern (Sterna nereis) breeding colonies in the Southern Lagoon, New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Berger-Tal, O., and Saltz, D. (2016). Conservation behavior: applying behavioral ecology to wildlife conservation and management. Page (Berger-Tal O, Saltz D, editors). Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.
BirdLife International. (2018). Fairy Tern, Sternula nereis. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694691A132568135.en (accessed 6 August 2019).
Boulinier, T., Danchin, E., Monnat, J.-Y., Doutrelant, C., and Cadiou, B. (1996). Timing of prospecting and the value of information in a colonial breeding bird. Journal of Avian Biology 27, 252–256.
| Timing of prospecting and the value of information in a colonial breeding bird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bried, J., and Jouventin, P. (2002). Site and mate choice in seabirds: an evolutionary approach. In ‘Biology of marine birds’. (Eds E. A. Schreiber and J. Burger). pp. 263–306. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA.)
Cabot, D., Nisbet, I. (2013). ‘Terns.’ (Collins: London.)
Canty, A., Ripley, B. (2020). ‘boot: Bootstrap R (S-Plus) functions.’ R package version 1.2-43. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/boot/index.html
Clinning, C. F. (1975). The biology and conservation of the Damara tern in South West Africa. Madoqua 1978, 31–39.
Cody, M. L. (1985). ‘Habitat selection in birds.’ (Academic Press.)
Commonwealth of Australia. (2019). Draft National Recovery Plan for the Australian Fairy Tern (Sternula nereis nereis). Available at https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/recovery-plans/comment/draft-recovery-plan-australian-fairy-tern
Coulson, J. C. (1966). The influence of the pair-bond and age on the breeding biology of the Kittiwake Gull Rissa tridactyla. Animal Ecology 35, 269–279.
| The influence of the pair-bond and age on the breeding biology of the Kittiwake Gull Rissa tridactyla.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coulson, J. C., and White, E. (1958). The effect of age on the breeding biology of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla. Ibis 100, 40–51.
| The effect of age on the breeding biology of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coulson, J.C., and Thomas, C. S. (1983). Mate choice in the Kittiwake gull. In ‘Mate choice’. (Ed. P. Bateson) pp. 361–376. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)
Danchin, E., Boulinier, T., and Massot, M. (1998). Conspecific reproductive success and breeding habitat selection: Implications for the study of coloniality. Ecology 79, 2415–2428.
| Conspecific reproductive success and breeding habitat selection: Implications for the study of coloniality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Davies, S. (1981). Development and behaviour of Little Tern chicks (Sterna albifrons). British Birds 74, 291–298.
Department of the Environment. (2011). Approved conservation advice for Sternula nereis nereis (Fairy Tern). Canberra. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/82950-conservation-advice.pdf (accessed 15 June 2020).
Department of the Environment. (2018). Sternula nereis nereis in species profile and threats database. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=82950 (accessed 14 August 2019).
Dunlop, J. N. (1985a). The relationship between moult and the reproductive cycle in a population of crested terns, Sterna bergii Lichtenstein. Wildlife Research 12, 487–494.
| The relationship between moult and the reproductive cycle in a population of crested terns, Sterna bergii Lichtenstein.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunlop, J. N. (1985b). Reproductive periodicity in a population of crested terns, Sterna bergii lichtenstein, in South-Western Australia. Wildlife Research 12, 95–102.
| Reproductive periodicity in a population of crested terns, Sterna bergii lichtenstein, in South-Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunlop, J. (1987). Social behavior and colony formation in a population of Crested Terns, Sterna bergii, in southwestern Australia. Wildlife Research 14:529. CSIRO Publishing.
Dunlop, J. N., and Jenkins, J. (1992). Known-age birds at a subtropical breeding colony of the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus): A comparison with the Sooty Tern. Colonial Waterbirds 15, 75.
| Known-age birds at a subtropical breeding colony of the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus): A comparison with the Sooty Tern.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunlop, J. N. (2018). Fairy Tern (Sternula nereis) conservation in south-western Australia, 2nd edition. Conservation Council of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia.
Dunlop, J. N., and Greenwell, C. N. (2020). Seasonal movements and meta-population structure of the Australian Fairy Tern in Western Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology
Estes, R. D. (1976). The significance of breeding synchrony in the wildebeest. African Journal of Ecology 14, 135–152.
| The significance of breeding synchrony in the wildebeest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fasola, M., and Saino, N. (1995). Sex-biased parental-care allocation in three tern species (Laridae, Aves). Canadian Journal of Zoology 73, 1461–1467.
| Sex-biased parental-care allocation in three tern species (Laridae, Aves).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Feare, C. J. (1976). The breeding of the Sooty tern Sterna fuscata in the Seychelles and the effects of experimental removal of its eggs. Journal of Zoology 179, 317–360.
| The breeding of the Sooty tern Sterna fuscata in the Seychelles and the effects of experimental removal of its eggs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Feare, C. J., Gill, E. L., Carty, P., Carty, H. E., and Ayrton, V. J. (1997). Habitat use by Seychelles Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata and implications for colony management. Biological Conservation 81, 69–76.
| Habitat use by Seychelles Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata and implications for colony management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ferreira, S. M., Hansen, K. M., Parrish, G. R., Pierce, R. J., Pulham, G. A., and Taylor, S. (2005). Conservation of the endangered New Zealand Fairy Tern. Biological Conservation 125, 345–354.
| Conservation of the endangered New Zealand Fairy Tern.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Foster, M. S. (1975). The Overlap of Molting and Breeding in Some Tropical Birds. The Condor 77, 304–314.
| The Overlap of Molting and Breeding in Some Tropical Birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fox J., and Weisberg S. (2019). car: An R companion to applied regression. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage. Available at https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Books/Companion/
Friesen, M. R., Beggs, J. R., and Gaskett, A. C. (2017). Sensory-based conservation of seabirds: a review of management strategies and animal behaviours that facilitate success. Biological Reviews 92, 1769–1784.
| Sensory-based conservation of seabirds: a review of management strategies and animal behaviours that facilitate success.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27807946PubMed |
Garnett, S. et al. (2013). ‘Climate change adaptation strategies for Australian birds.’ (Page National Climate Change Adaption Research Faculty (NCCARF), National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast.)
Gochfeld, M., and Burger, J. (1992). Family Sternidae (Terns). In ‘Handbook of the birds of the world. (Eds J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal and J. Cabot) pp. 624–667. (Lynx Edicions: Barcelona.)
González-Solís, J., Sokolov, E., and Becker, P. H. (2001). Courtship feedings, copulations and paternity in common terns, Sterna hirundo. Animal Behaviour 61, 1125–1132.
| Courtship feedings, copulations and paternity in common terns, Sterna hirundo.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Greenwell, C. N., Calver, M. C., and Loneragan, N. R. (2019a). Cat gets its tern: A case study of predation on a threatened coastal seabird. Animals 9, 445.
| Cat gets its tern: A case study of predation on a threatened coastal seabird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Greenwell, C. N., Dunlop, J. N., and Loneragan, N. R. (2019b). Nest desertion: an anti-predator strategy of the Australian Fairy Tern, Sternula nereis nereis. Marine Ornithology 47, 197–201.
Hamilton, W. D. (1971). Geometry for the selfish herd. Journal of Theoretical Biology 31, 295–311.
| Geometry for the selfish herd.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 5104951PubMed |
Helfenstein, F., Wagner, R. H., Danchin, E., and Rossi, J.-M. (2003). Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection. Animal Behaviour 65, 1027–1033.
| Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hernández-Matías, A., Jover, L., and Ruiz, X. (2003). Predation on Common Tern eggs in relation to sub-colony size, nest aggregation and breeding synchrony. Waterbirds 26, 280–289.
| Predation on Common Tern eggs in relation to sub-colony size, nest aggregation and breeding synchrony.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Higgins, P., and Davies, S. J. J. F. (1996). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds. Volume 3: snipe to pigeons.’ (Oxford University Press, Melbourne.)
Hijmans, R. J., and van Etten, J. (2012). raster: Geographic analysis and modeling with raster data. Available at https://rspatial.org/raster
Houston, A. I., and McNamara, J. M. (1985). A general theory of central place foraging for single-prey loaders. Theoretical Population Biology 28, 233–262.
| A general theory of central place foraging for single-prey loaders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ims, R. A. (1990). On the adaptive value of reproductive synchrony as a predator-swamping strategy. The American Naturalist 136, 485–498.
| On the adaptive value of reproductive synchrony as a predator-swamping strategy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jeffries, D. S., and Brunton, D. H. (2001). Attracting endangered species to “safe” habitats: Responses of fairy terns to decoys. Animal Conservation 4, 301–305.
| Attracting endangered species to “safe” habitats: Responses of fairy terns to decoys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnstone, R. E., and Storr, G. E. (1998). Handbook of Western Australian birds. Vol. 1: Non passerines, emu to dollarbird. (Ed. D. L. Taylor.) (Western Australian Museum: Perth, WA.)
Kendeigh, S. C. (1940). Factors affecting length of incubation. The Auk 57, 499–513.
| Factors affecting length of incubation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lack, D. (1968). ‘Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds.’ (Methuen: London.)
Mackin, W. A. (2005). Neighbor-stranger discrimination in Audubon’s shearwater (Puffinus l. lherminieri) explained by a “real enemy” effect. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 59, 326–332.
| Neighbor-stranger discrimination in Audubon’s shearwater (Puffinus l. lherminieri) explained by a “real enemy” effect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKinney, F. (1965). Spacing and chasing in breeding ducks. Wildfowl 16, 92–106.
McNicholl, M. K. (1975). Larid site tenacity and group adherence in relation to habitat. The Auk 92, 98–104.
| Larid site tenacity and group adherence in relation to habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Microsoft Corporation, Weston S. (2019). doParallel: Foreach Parallel Adaptor for the “parallel” Package. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/doParallel/index.html
Microsoft Corporation, Weston S. (2020). foreach: Provides foreach looping construct. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/doParallel/index.html
Monaghan, P., Uttley, J. D., Burns, M. D., Thaine, C., and Blackwood, J. (1989). The relationship between food supply, reproductive effort and breeding success in Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea. Journal of Animal Ecology 1, 261–274.
| The relationship between food supply, reproductive effort and breeding success in Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Montevecchi, W. A. (1978). Nest site selection and its survival value among laughing gulls. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 4, 143–161.
| Nest site selection and its survival value among laughing gulls.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T. (1973). Courtship-feeding, egg-size and breeding success in common terns. Nature 241, 141–142.
| Courtship-feeding, egg-size and breeding success in common terns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T. (1975). Selective effects of predation in a tern colony. The Condor 77, 221–226.
| Selective effects of predation in a tern colony.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T. (2000). Disturbance, habituation and management of waterbird colonies. Waterbirds 23, 312–332.
Nisbet, I. C. T., and Cohen, M. E. (1975). Asynchronoug hatching in Common and Roseate Terns, Sterna hirundo and S. dougallii. Ibis 117, 374–379.
| Asynchronoug hatching in Common and Roseate Terns, Sterna hirundo and S. dougallii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T., Winchell, J. M., and Heise, A. E. (1984). Influence of age on the breeding biology of Common Terns. Colonial Waterbirds 7, 117–126.
| Influence of age on the breeding biology of Common Terns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T., and Spendelow, J. A. (1999). Contribution of research to management and recovery of the roseate tern: review of a twelve-year project. Waterbirds 22, 239–535.
| Contribution of research to management and recovery of the roseate tern: review of a twelve-year project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nisbet, I. C. T. T., and Hatch, J. J. (2008). Consequences of a female-biased sex-ratio in a socially monogamous bird: female-female pairs in the Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii. Ibis 141, 307–320.
| Consequences of a female-biased sex-ratio in a socially monogamous bird: female-female pairs in the Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paiva, V. H., Ramos, J. A., Catry, T., Pedro, P., Medeiros, R., and Palma, J. (2006). Influence of environmental factors and energetic value of food on Little Tern Sterna albifrons chick growth and food delivery. Bird Study 53, 1–11.
| Influence of environmental factors and energetic value of food on Little Tern Sterna albifrons chick growth and food delivery.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Palestis, B. G. (2014). The role of behavior in tern conservation. Current Zoology 60, 500–514.
| The role of behavior in tern conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parrish, G. R., and Pulham, G. A. (1995). Observations on the breeding of the New Zealand Fairy Tern. Tane 35, 161–173.
Perrins, C. M., and Birkhead, T. R. (1983). ‘Avian ecology.’ (Blackie & Son Ltd: New York.)
Pettingill, O. S. (1985). ‘Ornithology in laboratory and field’, 5th edn. (Academic Press: FL.)
Ramos, J. A. (2003). Intraspecific aggression by Roseate Tern adults on chicks in a tropical colony. Waterbirds 26, 160–165.
| Intraspecific aggression by Roseate Tern adults on chicks in a tropical colony.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Core Development Team. (2011). R: a language and environment for statistical computing. The R Foundation for Statistical Computing., Vienna, Austria. Available at http://www.r-project.org/
Reed, J. M., and Dobson, A. P. (1993). Behavioural constraints and conservation biology: Conspecific attraction and recruitment. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8, 253–256.
| Behavioural constraints and conservation biology: Conspecific attraction and recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Safina, C., and Burger, J. (1983). Effects of human disturbance success in the Black Skimmer. The Condor 85, 164–171.
| Effects of human disturbance success in the Black Skimmer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saino, N., and Fasola, M. (2010). The function of embryonic vocalization in the Little Tern (Sterna albifrons). Ethology 102, 265–271.
| The function of embryonic vocalization in the Little Tern (Sterna albifrons).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saino, N., Fasola, M., and Crocicchia, E. (1994). Adoption behaviour in Little and Common Terns (Aves; Sternidae): Chick benefits and parents’ fitness costs. Ethology 97, 294–309.
| Adoption behaviour in Little and Common Terns (Aves; Sternidae): Chick benefits and parents’ fitness costs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shealer, D. A., and Zurovchak, J. G. (1995). Three extremely large clutches of roseate tern eggs in the Caribbean. Colonial Waterbirds 18, 105–107.
| Three extremely large clutches of roseate tern eggs in the Caribbean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shugart, G. W. (1978). The development of chick cecognition by adult Caspian Terns. Proceedings of the Colonial Waterbird Group 1, 110–117.
| The development of chick cecognition by adult Caspian Terns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simmons, R., and Braine, S. (1994). Breeding, foraging, trapping and sexing of Damara Terns in the Skeleton Coast Park, Namibia. Ostrich 65, 264–273.
| Breeding, foraging, trapping and sexing of Damara Terns in the Skeleton Coast Park, Namibia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sutherland, W. J. (1998). The importance of behavioural studies in conservation biology. New York 56, 801–809.
| The importance of behavioural studies in conservation biology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Temeles, E. J. (1994). The role of neighbours in territorial systems: When are they “dear enemies”? Animal Behaviour 47, 339–350.
| The role of neighbours in territorial systems: When are they “dear enemies”?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Threatened Species Scientific Committee. (2011). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Sternula nereis nereis. Canberra. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=82950 (accessed 15 March 2020).
US Fish and Wildlife Service. (1990). Recovery plan for the interior population of Least Tern Sternula antillarum. (US Fish and Wildlife Service: Twin Cities, MI.)
Veen, J. (1977). Functional and causal aspects of nest distribution in colonies of the Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicencis Lath.). Behaviour Supplement, 1–201.
Wickham, H. (2019). stringr: Simple, consistent wrappers for common string operations. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/package=stringr
Wickham, H., Seidel, D. (2019). scales: Scale functions for visualisation. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/package=scales
