Effects of local anthropogenic stressors on a habitat cascade in an estuarine seagrass system
Alfonso Siciliano A B C , David R. Schiel A and Mads S. Thomsen AA Marine Ecology Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand.
B Department of Conservation, Taupo Fishery, Private Bag 2, Turangi, New Zealand.
C Corresponding author. Email: sicilianoalfonso@gmail.com
Marine and Freshwater Research 70(8) 1129-1142 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF18414
Submitted: 28 October 2018 Accepted: 5 January 2019 Published: 7 March 2019
Abstract
Recent research has shown that co-occurring primary and secondary habitat-forming species typically support higher biodiversity than do monocultures of the primary habitat-former alone. However, these ‘habitat cascades’ may not be universal and it is important to know whether, when and where positive effects on biodiversity from secondary habitat-forming species change to negative effects. Here, we tested how anthropogenic stressors (fertilisation and sedimentation) and unattached secondary habitat-forming Ulva seaweeds affected the primary habitat-forming seagrass, Zostera muelleri, and its associated invertebrates in the Avon–Heathcote Estuary, New Zealand. We experimentally stressed Zostera by adding different fertilisation and sediment levels. Fertilisation had little impact, whereas even low sedimentation levels had strong negative effects on Zostera and its associated fauna. In a second experiment, sediments and Ulva were added to seagrass beds and unvegetated mudflats to test whether sediment stress modifies habitat cascades. We found again strong negative effects of sediments on Zostera, irrespective of spatio-temporal conditions, and that negative effects of sediments on invertebrates were enhanced in the presence of the secondary habitat former. These results highlighted that anthropogenic stressors can destabilise habitat cascades; processes that may be of particular importance in estuaries that are characterised by low biodiversity and stressful environmental conditions.
Additional keywords: biodiversity, drifting seaweeds, fertilisation, foundation species, morphology, sedimentation.
References
Abele, L. G. (1974). Species diversity of decapod crustaceans in marine habitats. Ecology 55, 156–161.| Species diversity of decapod crustaceans in marine habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Airoldi, L., and Hawkins, S. J. (2007). Negative effects of sediment deposition on grazing activity and survival of the limpet Patella vulgata. Marine Ecology Progress Series 332, 235–240.
| Negative effects of sediment deposition on grazing activity and survival of the limpet Patella vulgata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Airoldi, L., and Virgilio, M. (1998). Responses of turf-forming algae to spatial variations in the deposition of sediments. Marine Ecology Progress Series 165, 271–282.
| Responses of turf-forming algae to spatial variations in the deposition of sediments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alcoverro, T., Zimmerman, R. C., Kohrs, D. G., and Alberte, R. S. (1999). Resource allocation and sucrose mobilization in light-limited eelgrass Zostera marina. Marine Ecology Progress Series 187, 121–131.
| Resource allocation and sucrose mobilization in light-limited eelgrass Zostera marina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Altieri, A. H., Silliman, B. R., and Bertness, M. D. (2007). Hierarchical organization via a facilitation cascade in intertidal cordgrass bed communities. American Naturalist 169, 195–206.
| Hierarchical organization via a facilitation cascade in intertidal cordgrass bed communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17211804PubMed |
Angelini, C., Altieri, A. H., Silliman, B. R., and Bertness, M. D. (2011). Interactions among foundation species and their consequences for community organization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience 61, 782–789.
| Interactions among foundation species and their consequences for community organization, biodiversity, and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Attrill, M. J., Strong, J. A., and Rowden, A. A. (2000). Are macroinvertebrate communities influenced by seagrass structural complexity? Ecography 23, 114–121.
| Are macroinvertebrate communities influenced by seagrass structural complexity?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C., and Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs 81, 169–193.
| The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Battley, P., Melville, D., Schuckard, R., and Ballance, P. (2011). Zostera muelleri as a structuring agent of benthic communities in a large intertidal sandflat in New Zealand. Journal of Sea Research 65, 19–27.
| Zostera muelleri as a structuring agent of benthic communities in a large intertidal sandflat in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bishop, M. J., Byers, J. E., Marcek, B. J., and Gribben, P. E. (2012). Density-dependent facilitation cascades determine epifaunal community structure in temperate Australian mangroves. Ecology 93, 1388–1401.
| Density-dependent facilitation cascades determine epifaunal community structure in temperate Australian mangroves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22834379PubMed |
Boffa Miskell Limited (2015). Aquatic ecology of sites within the Heathcote, Estuary & Coastal, and Avon SMP catchments: informing the comprehensive discharge consent. Report prepared by Boffa Miskell Limited for Christchurch City Council, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Bolam, S. G. (2011). Burial survival of benthic macrofauna following deposition of simulated dredged material. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 181, 13–27.
| Burial survival of benthic macrofauna following deposition of simulated dredged material.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21188510PubMed |
Bologna, P. A., and Heck, K. L. (1999). Macrofaunal associations with seagrass epiphytes: relative importance of trophic and structural characteristics. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 242, 21–39.
| Macrofaunal associations with seagrass epiphytes: relative importance of trophic and structural characteristics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boström, C., and Bonsdorff, E. (1997). Community structure and spatial variation of benthic invertebrates associated with Zostera marina (L.) beds in the northern Baltic Sea. Journal of Sea Research 37, 153–166.
| Community structure and spatial variation of benthic invertebrates associated with Zostera marina (L.) beds in the northern Baltic Sea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boström, C., and Bonsdorff, E. (2000). Zoobenthic community establishment and habitat complexity: the importance of seagrass shoot-density, morphology and physical disturbance for faunal recruitment. Marine Ecology Progress Series 205, 123–138.
| Zoobenthic community establishment and habitat complexity: the importance of seagrass shoot-density, morphology and physical disturbance for faunal recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brun, F. G., Hernández, I., Vergara, J. J., and Pérez-Lloréns, J. L. (2003a). Growth, carbon allocation and proteolytic activity in the seagrass Zostera noltii shaded by Ulva canopies. Functional Plant Biology 30, 551–560.
| Growth, carbon allocation and proteolytic activity in the seagrass Zostera noltii shaded by Ulva canopies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brun, F. G., Vergara, J. J., Navarro, G., Hernández, I., and Pérez-Lloréns, J. L. (2003b). Effect of shading by Ulva rigida canopies on growth and carbon balance of the seagrass Zostera noltii. Marine Ecology Progress Series 265, 85–96.
| Effect of shading by Ulva rigida canopies on growth and carbon balance of the seagrass Zostera noltii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bulthuis, D. A. (1987). Effects of temperature on photosynthesis and growth of seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 27, 27–40.
| Effects of temperature on photosynthesis and growth of seagrasses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burkepile, D. E., and Hay, M. E. (2006). Herbivore vs. nutrient control of marine primary producers: context-dependent effects. Ecology 87, 3128–3139.
| Herbivore vs. nutrient control of marine primary producers: context-dependent effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17249237PubMed |
Burkholder, J. M., Mason, K. M., and Glasgow, H. B. (1992). Water-column nitrate enrichment promotes decline of eelgrass Zostera marina: evidence from seasonal mesocosm experiments. Marine Ecology Progress Series 81, 163–178.
| Water-column nitrate enrichment promotes decline of eelgrass Zostera marina: evidence from seasonal mesocosm experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burkholder, J. M., Tomasko, D. A., and Touchette, B. W. (2007). Seagrasses and eutrophication. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 350, 46–72.
| Seagrasses and eutrophication.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cabaço, S., and Santos, R. (2007). Effects of burial and erosion on the seagrass Zostera noltii. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 340, 204–212.
| Effects of burial and erosion on the seagrass Zostera noltii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cabaço, S., Santos, R., and Duarte, C. M. (2008). The impact of sediment burial and erosion on seagrasses: a review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79, 354–366.
| The impact of sediment burial and erosion on seagrasses: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cambridge, M. L., and McComb, A. J. (1984). The loss of seagrasses in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. 1. The time course and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial development. Aquatic Botany 20, 229–243.
| The loss of seagrasses in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. 1. The time course and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardoso, P., Pardal, M., Raffaelli, D., Baeta, A., and Marques, J. (2004). Macroinvertebrate response to different species of macroalgal mats and the role of disturbance history. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 308, 207–220.
| Macroinvertebrate response to different species of macroalgal mats and the role of disturbance history.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ceccherelli, G., and Cinelli, F. (1997). Short-term effects of nutrient enrichment of the sediment and interactions between the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa and the introduced green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in a Mediterranean bay. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 217, 165–177.
| Short-term effects of nutrient enrichment of the sediment and interactions between the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa and the introduced green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in a Mediterranean bay.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ceccherelli, G., Oliva, S., Pinna, S., Piazzi, L., Procaccini, G., Marin-Guirao, L., Dattolo, E., Gallia, R., La Manna, G., and Gennaro, P. (2018). Seagrass collapse due to synergistic stressors is not anticipated by phenological changes. Oecologia 186, 1137–1152.
| Seagrass collapse due to synergistic stressors is not anticipated by phenological changes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29357032PubMed |
Clarke, K. R., and Warwick, R. M. (2001). ‘Change in Marine Communities: an approach to statistical analysis and interpretation’, 2nd edn. (PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK.)
Connolly, R. (1994a). A comparison of fish assemblages from seagrass and unvegetated areas of a southern Australian estuary. Marine and Freshwater Research 45, 1033–1044.
| A comparison of fish assemblages from seagrass and unvegetated areas of a southern Australian estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Connolly, R. M. (1994b). The role of seagrass as preferred habitat for juvenile Sillaginodes punctata (Cuv. & Val.)(Sillaginidae, Pisces): habitat selection or feeding? Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 180, 39–47.
| The role of seagrass as preferred habitat for juvenile Sillaginodes punctata (Cuv. & Val.)(Sillaginidae, Pisces): habitat selection or feeding?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Connolly, R. M. (1997). Differences in composition of small, motile invertebrate assemblages from seagrass and unvegetated habitats in a southern Australian estuary. Hydrobiologia 346, 137–148.
| Differences in composition of small, motile invertebrate assemblages from seagrass and unvegetated habitats in a southern Australian estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crain, C. M., Kroeker, K., and Halpern, B. S. (2008). Interactive and cumulative effects of multiple human stressors in marine systems. Ecology Letters 11, 1304–1315.
| Interactive and cumulative effects of multiple human stressors in marine systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19046359PubMed |
Cummins, S., Roberts, D., and Zimmerman, K. (2004). Effects of the green macroalga Enteromorpha intestinalis on macrobenthic and seagrass assemblages in a shallow coastal estuary. Marine Ecology Progress Series 266, 77–87.
| Effects of the green macroalga Enteromorpha intestinalis on macrobenthic and seagrass assemblages in a shallow coastal estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Currás, A., Sánchez-Mata, A., and Mora, J. (1994). Estudio comparativo de la macrofauna bentónica de un fondo de Zostera marina y un fondo arenoso libre de cubierta vegetal. Cahiers de Biologie Marine 35, 91–112.
Darling, E. S., and Côté, I. M. (2008). Quantifying the evidence for ecological synergies. Ecology Letters 11, 1278–1286.
| Quantifying the evidence for ecological synergies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18785986PubMed |
Den Hartog, C. (1970). The seagrasses of the world. Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeling Natuurkunde 59, 1–275.
Diaz-Almela, E., Marba, N., and Duarte, C. M. (2007). Concequences of Mediterranean warming events in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) flowering records. Global Change Biology 13, 224–235.
| Concequences of Mediterranean warming events in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) flowering records.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Drouin, A., McKindsey, C. W., and Johnson, L. E. (2011). Higher abundance and diversity in faunal assemblages with the invasion of Codium fragile ssp. fragile in eelgrass meadows. Marine Ecology Progress Series 424, 105–117.
| Higher abundance and diversity in faunal assemblages with the invasion of Codium fragile ssp. fragile in eelgrass meadows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duarte, C. M. (1995). Submerged aquatic vegetation in relation to different nutrient regimes. Ophelia 41, 87–112.
| Submerged aquatic vegetation in relation to different nutrient regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duarte, C. M., Terrados, J., Agawin, N. S., Fortes, M. D., Bach, S., and Kenworthy, W. J. (1997). Response of a mixed Philippine seagrass meadow to experimental burial. Marine Ecology Progress Series 147, 285–294.
| Response of a mixed Philippine seagrass meadow to experimental burial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Edgar, G. J., and Robertson, A. I. (1992). The influence of seagrass structure on the distribution and abundance of mobile epifauna: pattern and process in a Western Australian Amphibolis bed. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 160, 13–31.
| The influence of seagrass structure on the distribution and abundance of mobile epifauna: pattern and process in a Western Australian Amphibolis bed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ehlers, A., Worm, B., and Reusch, T. B. (2008). Importance of genetic diversity in eelgrass Zostera marina for its resilience to global warming. Marine Ecology Progress Series 355, 1–7.
| Importance of genetic diversity in eelgrass Zostera marina for its resilience to global warming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Erftemeijer, P. L., and Lewis, R. R. R. (2006). Environmental impacts of dredging on seagrasses: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52, 1553–1572.
| Environmental impacts of dredging on seagrasses: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17078974PubMed |
Ferrell, D. J., and Bell, J. D. (1991). Differences among assemblages of fish associated with Zostera capricorni and bare sand over a large spatial scale. Marine Ecology Progress Series 72, 15–24.
| Differences among assemblages of fish associated with Zostera capricorni and bare sand over a large spatial scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Findlay, R., and Kirk, R. (1988). Post‐1847 changes in the Avon–Heathcote Estuary, Christchurch: a study of the effect of urban development around a tidal estuary. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 22, 101–127.
| Post‐1847 changes in the Avon–Heathcote Estuary, Christchurch: a study of the effect of urban development around a tidal estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fletcher, R. L. (1996). The occurence of ‘green tides’ a review. Ecological Studies 123, 7–43.
| The occurence of ‘green tides’ a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fonseca, G., Hutchings, P., and Gallucci, F. (2011). Meiobenthic communities of seagrass beds (Zostera capricorni) and unvegetated sediments along the coast of New South Wales, Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 91, 69–77.
| Meiobenthic communities of seagrass beds (Zostera capricorni) and unvegetated sediments along the coast of New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frost, M. T., Rowden, A. A., and Attrill, M. J. (1999). Effect of habitat fragmentation on the macroinvertebrate infaunal communities associated with the seagrass Zostera marina L. Aquatic Conservation 9, 255–263.
| Effect of habitat fragmentation on the macroinvertebrate infaunal communities associated with the seagrass Zostera marina L.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gartner, A., Tuya, F., Lavery, P. S., and McMahon, K. (2013). Habitat preferences of macroinvertebrate fauna among seagrasses with varying structural forms. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 439, 143–151.
| Habitat preferences of macroinvertebrate fauna among seagrasses with varying structural forms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gore, R. H., Gallaher, E. E., Scotto, L. E., and Wilson, K. A. (1981). Studies on decapod crustacea from the Indian River Region of Florida: XI. Community composition, structure, biomass andspecies-areal relationships of seagrass and drift algae-associated macrocrustaceans. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 12, 365–374.
Guidetti, P., Lorenti, M., Buia, M. C., and Mazzella, L. (2002). Temporal dynamics and biomass partitioning in three Adriatic seagrass species: Posidonia oceanica, Cymodocea nodosa, Zostera marina. Marine Ecology 23, 51–67.
| Temporal dynamics and biomass partitioning in three Adriatic seagrass species: Posidonia oceanica, Cymodocea nodosa, Zostera marina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall, M., and Bell, S. (1988a). Response of small motile epifauna to complexity of epiphytic algae on seagrass blades. Journal of Marine Research 46, 613–630.
| Response of small motile epifauna to complexity of epiphytic algae on seagrass blades.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall, M. O., and Bell, S. S. (1988b). Response of small motile epifauna to complexity of epiphytic algae on seagrass blades. Journal of Marine Research 46, 613–630.
| Response of small motile epifauna to complexity of epiphytic algae on seagrass blades.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Halpern, B. S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K. A., Kappel, C. V., Micheli, F., D’agrosa, C., Bruno, J. F., Casey, K. S., Ebert, C., and Fox, H. E. (2008). A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319, 948–952.
| A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18276889PubMed |
Hauxwell, J., Cebrián, J., Furlong, C., and Valiela, I. (2001). Macroalgal canopies contribute to eelgrass (Zostera marina) decline in temperate estuarine ecosystems. Ecology 82, 1007–1022.
| Macroalgal canopies contribute to eelgrass (Zostera marina) decline in temperate estuarine ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayward, B. W., Morley, M. S., Stephenson, A. B., Blom, W. M., Grenfell, H. R., Prasad, R., Rogan, D., Thompson, F., Cheetham, J., and Webb, M. (1999). Intertidal and subtidal biota and habitats of the central Waitemata Harbour. Technical Publication 127, Auckland Regional Council, Auckland, New Zealand.
Hayward, B. W., Stephenson, A. B., Morley, M. S., Blom, W. M., Grenfell, H. R., Brook, F. J., Riley, J. L., Thompson, F., and Hayward, J. J. (2001). Marine biota of Parengarenga Harbour, Northland, New Zealand. Records of the Auckland Museum 37–38, 45–80.
Heck, K. Jr, and Orth, R. (1980) Seagrass habitats: the roles of habitat complexity, competition and predation in structuring associated fish and motile macroinvertebrate assemblages. In ‘Estuarine Perspectives’. (Ed. V. S. Kennedy.) pp. 449-464. (Academic Press: New York, NY, USA.)
Heck, K. L., and Wetstone, G. S. (1977). Habitat complexity and invertebrate species richness and abundance in tropical seagrass meadows. Journal of Biogeography 4, 135–142.
| Habitat complexity and invertebrate species richness and abundance in tropical seagrass meadows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heck, K., Able, K., Roman, C., and Fahay, M. (1995). Composition, abundance, biomass, and production of macrofauna in a New England estuary: comparisons among eelgrass meadows and other nursery habitats. Estuaries and Coasts 18, 379–389.
| Composition, abundance, biomass, and production of macrofauna in a New England estuary: comparisons among eelgrass meadows and other nursery habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hinchey, E. K., Schaffner, L. C., Hoar, C. C., Vogt, B. W., and Batte, L. P. (2006). Responses of estuarine benthic invertebrates to sediment burial: the importance of mobility and adaptation. Hydrobiologia 556, 85–98.
| Responses of estuarine benthic invertebrates to sediment burial: the importance of mobility and adaptation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hollever, J., and Bolton-Ritchie, L. (2016). ‘Broad Scale Mapping of the Estuary of the Heathcote and Avon Rivers/Ihutai.’ (Environment Canterbury, Regional Council: Christchurch, New Zealand.)
Holmer, M., and Bondgaard, E. J. (2001). Photosynthetic and growth response of eelgrass to low oxygen and high sulfide concentrations during hypoxic events. Aquatic Botany 70, 29–38.
| Photosynthetic and growth response of eelgrass to low oxygen and high sulfide concentrations during hypoxic events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holmer, M., Marbà, N., Lamote, M., and Duarte, C. M. (2009). Deterioration of sediment quality in seagrass meadows (Posidonia oceanica) invaded by macroalgae (Caulerpa sp.). Estuaries and Coasts 32, 456–466.
| Deterioration of sediment quality in seagrass meadows (Posidonia oceanica) invaded by macroalgae (Caulerpa sp.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holmer, M., Wirachwong, P., and Thomsen, M. S. (2011). Negative effects of stress-resistant drift algae and high temperature on a small ephemeral seagrass species. Marine Biology 158, 297–309.
| Negative effects of stress-resistant drift algae and high temperature on a small ephemeral seagrass species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holmquist, J. G. (1997). Disturbance and gap formation in a marine benthic mosaic: influence of shifting macroalgal patches on seagrass structure and mobile invertebrates. Marine Ecology Progress Series 158, 121–130.
| Disturbance and gap formation in a marine benthic mosaic: influence of shifting macroalgal patches on seagrass structure and mobile invertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hurlbert, S. H. (1984). Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological Monographs 54, 187–211.
| Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jacobs, R. (1979). Distribution and aspects of the production and biomass of eelgrass, Zostera marina L., at Roscoff, France. Aquatic Botany 7, 151–172.
| Distribution and aspects of the production and biomass of eelgrass, Zostera marina L., at Roscoff, France.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones, M. B., Marsden, I. D., and Holdaway, R. (2005) ‘Life in the Estuary: Illustrated Guide and Ecology.’ (Canterbury University Press: Christchurch, New Zealand.)
Kaldy, J. E. (2014). Effect of temperature and nutrient manipulations on eelgrass Zostera marina L. from the Pacific Northwest, USA. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 453, 108–115.
| Effect of temperature and nutrient manipulations on eelgrass Zostera marina L. from the Pacific Northwest, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkman, H., Cook, I., and Reid, D. (1982). Biomass and growth of Zostera capricorni aschers. in port hacking, NSW, Australia. Aquatic Botany 12, 57–67.
| Biomass and growth of Zostera capricorni aschers. in port hacking, NSW, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kohn, A. J. (1967). Environmental complexity and species diversity in the gastropod genus Conus on Indo–West Pacific reef platforms. American Naturalist 101, 251–259.
| Environmental complexity and species diversity in the gastropod genus Conus on Indo–West Pacific reef platforms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Larkum, A., Collett, L., and Williams, R. (1984). The standing stock, growth and shoot production of Zostera capricorni Aschers. in Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia. Aquatic Botany 19, 307–327.
| The standing stock, growth and shoot production of Zostera capricorni Aschers. in Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Laugier, T., Rigollet, V., and de Casabianca, M.-L. (1999). Seasonal dynamics in mixed eelgrass beds, Zostera marina L. and Z. noltii Hornem., in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon (Thau lagoon, France). Aquatic Botany 63, 51–69.
| Seasonal dynamics in mixed eelgrass beds, Zostera marina L. and Z. noltii Hornem., in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon (Thau lagoon, France).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee, K.-S., and Dunton, K. (1999a). Influence of sediment nitrogen-availability on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Marine Biology 134, 217–226.
| Influence of sediment nitrogen-availability on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in the seagrass Thalassia testudinum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee, K.-S., and Dunton, K. H. (1999b). Inorganic nitrogen acquisition in the seagrass Thalassia testudinum: development of a whole‐plant nitrogen budget. Limnology and Oceanography 44, 1204–1215.
| Inorganic nitrogen acquisition in the seagrass Thalassia testudinum: development of a whole‐plant nitrogen budget.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee, S. Y., Kim, J. B., and Lee, S. M. (2006). Temporal dynamics of subtidal Zostera marina and intertidal Zostera japonica on the southern coast of Korea. Marine Ecology 27, 133–144.
| Temporal dynamics of subtidal Zostera marina and intertidal Zostera japonica on the southern coast of Korea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leoni, V., Vela, A., Pasqualini, V., Pergent‐Martini, C., and Pergent, G. (2008). Effects of experimental reduction of light and nutrient enrichments (N and P) on seagrasses: a review. Aquatic Conservation 18, 202–220.
| Effects of experimental reduction of light and nutrient enrichments (N and P) on seagrasses: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Longstaff, B. J., and Dennison, W. C. (1999). Seagrass survival during pulsed turbidity events: the effects of light deprivation on the seagrasses Halodule pinifolia and Halophila ovalis. Aquatic Botany 65, 105–121.
| Seagrass survival during pulsed turbidity events: the effects of light deprivation on the seagrasses Halodule pinifolia and Halophila ovalis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Manzanera, M., Pérez, M., and Romero, J. (1998). Seagrass mortality due to oversedimentation: an experimental approach. Journal of Coastal Conservation 4, 67–70.
| Seagrass mortality due to oversedimentation: an experimental approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marbà, N., and Duarte, C. M. (1995). Coupling of seagrass (Cymodocea nodosa) patch dynamics to subaqueous dune migration. Journal of Ecology 83, 381–389.
| Coupling of seagrass (Cymodocea nodosa) patch dynamics to subaqueous dune migration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marsden, I. D., and Bressington, M. J. (2009). Effects of macroalgal mats and hypoxia on burrowing depth of the New Zealand cockle (Austrovenus stutchburyi). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 81, 438–444.
| Effects of macroalgal mats and hypoxia on burrowing depth of the New Zealand cockle (Austrovenus stutchburyi).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marsden, I., and Maclaren, S. (2010). Short-term study testing the resilience of an estuarine bivalve to macroalgal mats. Hydrobiologia 649, 217–229.
| Short-term study testing the resilience of an estuarine bivalve to macroalgal mats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mattila, J., Chaplin, G., Eilers, M. R., Heck, K. L., O’Neal, J. P., and Valentine, J. F. (1999). Spatial and diurnal distribution of invertebrate and fish fauna of a Zostera marina bed and nearby unvegetated sediments in Damariscotta River, Maine (USA). Journal of Sea Research 41, 321–332.
| Spatial and diurnal distribution of invertebrate and fish fauna of a Zostera marina bed and nearby unvegetated sediments in Damariscotta River, Maine (USA).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McClatchie, S., Juniper, S., and Knox, G. (1982). Structure of a mudflat diatom community in the Avon–Heathcote Estuary, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 16, 299–309.
| Structure of a mudflat diatom community in the Avon–Heathcote Estuary, New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGlathery, K. J. (2001). Macroalgal blooms contribute to the decline of seagrass in nutrient‐enriched coastal waters. Journal of Phycology 37, 453–456.
| Macroalgal blooms contribute to the decline of seagrass in nutrient‐enriched coastal waters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKenzie, L. J. (1994). Seasonal changes in biomass and shoot characteristics of a Zostera capricorni Aschers. dominant meadow in Cairns Harbour, northern Queensland. Marine and Freshwater Research 45, 1337–1352.
| Seasonal changes in biomass and shoot characteristics of a Zostera capricorni Aschers. dominant meadow in Cairns Harbour, northern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McRoy, C. P. (1970). Standing stocks and other features of eelgrass (Zostera marina) populations on the coast of Alaska. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada 27, 1811–1821.
| Standing stocks and other features of eelgrass (Zostera marina) populations on the coast of Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meling-López, A. E., and Ibarra-Obando, S. E. (1999). Annual life cycles of two Zostera marina L. populations in the Gulf of California: contrasts in seasonality and reproductive effort. Aquatic Botany 65, 59–69.
| Annual life cycles of two Zostera marina L. populations in the Gulf of California: contrasts in seasonality and reproductive effort.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mills, K. E., and Fonseca, M. S. (2003). Mortality and productivity of eelgrass Zostera marina under conditions of experimental burial with two sediment types. Marine Ecology Progress Series 255, 127–134.
| Mortality and productivity of eelgrass Zostera marina under conditions of experimental burial with two sediment types.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moore, K. A., Shields, E. C., and Parrish, D. B. (2014). Impacts of varying estuarine temperature and light conditions on Zostera marina (eelgrass) and its interactions with Ruppia maritima (widgeongrass). Estuaries and Coasts 37, 20–30.
| Impacts of varying estuarine temperature and light conditions on Zostera marina (eelgrass) and its interactions with Ruppia maritima (widgeongrass).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morley, M. S., Hayward, B. W., Stephenson, A. B., Smith, N., and Riley, J. L. (1997). Molluscs, crustacea and echinoderms from Kawhia, west coast, North Island. Tane 36, 157–180.
Morris, L., Jenkins, G., Hatton, D., and Smith, T. (2007). Effects of nutrient additions on intertidal seagrass (Zostera muelleri) habitat in Western Port, Victoria, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 58, 666–674.
| Effects of nutrient additions on intertidal seagrass (Zostera muelleri) habitat in Western Port, Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mowles, S. L., Rundle, S. D., and Cotton, P. A. (2011). Susceptibility to predation affects trait-mediated indirect interactions by reversing interspecific competition. PLoS One 6, e23068.
| Susceptibility to predation affects trait-mediated indirect interactions by reversing interspecific competition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21857993PubMed |
Murphy, G. (2006). Ecological effects of Ulva lactuca L. in Avon–Heathcote Estuary. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Myers, N. (1995). Environmental unknowns. Science 269, 358–360.
| Environmental unknowns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17841254PubMed |
Nakaoka, M., Toyohara, T., and Matsumasa, M. (2001). Seasonal and between‐substrate variation in mobile epifaunal community in a multispecific seagrass bed of Otsuchi Bay, Japan. Marine Ecology 22, 379–395.
| Seasonal and between‐substrate variation in mobile epifaunal community in a multispecific seagrass bed of Otsuchi Bay, Japan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nichols, J. A., Rowe, G. T., Clifford, C. H., and Young, R. A. (1978). In situ experiments on the burial of marine invertebrates. Journal of Sedimentary Research 48, 419–425.
Nienhuis, P. (1980). Production and growth dynamics of eelgrass (Zostera marina) in brackish Lake Grevelingen (the Netherlands). Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 14, 102–118.
| Production and growth dynamics of eelgrass (Zostera marina) in brackish Lake Grevelingen (the Netherlands).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orth, R. (1977). Effect of nutrient enrichment on growth of the eelgrass Zostera marina in the Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, USA. Marine Biology 44, 187–194.
| Effect of nutrient enrichment on growth of the eelgrass Zostera marina in the Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orth, R. J., Carruthers, T. J., Dennison, W. C., Duarte, C. M., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck, K. L., Hughes, A. R., Kendrick, G. A., Kenworthy, W. J., and Olyarnik, S. (2006). A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems. Bioscience 56, 987–996.
| A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pedersen, M. F., and Borum, J. (1996). Nutrient control of algal growth i estuarine waters: nutrient limitation and the importance of nitrogen requirements and nitrogen storage among phytoplanton and species of macroalgae. Marine Ecology Progress Series 142, 261–272.
| Nutrient control of algal growth i estuarine waters: nutrient limitation and the importance of nitrogen requirements and nitrogen storage among phytoplanton and species of macroalgae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pedersen, M. F., Paling, E. I., and Walker, D. I. (1997). Nitrogen uptake and allocation in the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica. Aquatic Botany 56, 105–117.
| Nitrogen uptake and allocation in the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peralta, G., Pérez-Lloréns, J., Hernández, I., and Vergara, J. (2002). Effects of light availability on growth, architecture and nutrient content of the seagrass Zostera noltii Hornem. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 269, 9–26.
| Effects of light availability on growth, architecture and nutrient content of the seagrass Zostera noltii Hornem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pérez-Lloréns, J., and Niell, F. (1993). Seasonal dynamics of biomass and nutrient content in the intertidal seagrass Zostera noltii Hornem. from Palmones River estuary, Spain. Aquatic Botany 46, 49–66.
| Seasonal dynamics of biomass and nutrient content in the intertidal seagrass Zostera noltii Hornem. from Palmones River estuary, Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ramage, D. L., and Schiel, D. R. (1999). Patch dynamics and response to disturbance of the seagrass Zostera novazelandica on intertidal platforms in southern New Zealand. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189, 275–288.
| Patch dynamics and response to disturbance of the seagrass Zostera novazelandica on intertidal platforms in southern New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roca, G., Alcoverro, T., Krause-Jensen, D., Balsby, T. J., van Katwijk, M. M., Marbà, N., Santos, R., Arthur, R., Mascaró, O., and Fernández-Torquemada, Y. (2016). Response of seagrass indicators to shifts in environmental stressors: a global review and management synthesis. Ecological Indicators 63, 310–323.
| Response of seagrass indicators to shifts in environmental stressors: a global review and management synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rueda, J. L., and Salas, C. (2008). Molluscs associated with a subtidal Zostera marina L. bed in southern Spain: linking seasonal changes of fauna and environmental variables. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79, 157–167.
| Molluscs associated with a subtidal Zostera marina L. bed in southern Spain: linking seasonal changes of fauna and environmental variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sala, O. E., Chapin, F. S., Armesto, J. J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., Huber-Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L. F., Jackson, R. B., and Kinzig, A. (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770–1774.
| Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10710299PubMed |
Sand-Jensen, K. (1975). Biomass, net production and growth dynamics in an eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) population in Vellerup Vig, Denmark. Ophelia 14, 185–201.
| Biomass, net production and growth dynamics in an eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) population in Vellerup Vig, Denmark.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sand-Jensen, K., and Borum, J. (1991). Interactions among phytoplankton, periphyton, and macrophytes in temporate freshwaters and estuaries. Aquatic Botany 41, 137–175.
| Interactions among phytoplankton, periphyton, and macrophytes in temporate freshwaters and estuaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saunders, J. E., Attrill, M. J., Shaw, S. M., and Rowden, A. A. (2003). Spatial variability in the epiphytic algal assemblages of Zostera marina seagrass beds. Marine Ecology Progress Series 249, 107–115.
| Spatial variability in the epiphytic algal assemblages of Zostera marina seagrass beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schneider, F. I., and Mann, K. H. (1991). Species specific relationships of invertebrates to vegetation in a seagrass bed. II. Experiments on the importance of macrophyte shape, epiphyte cover and predation. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 145, 119–139.
| Species specific relationships of invertebrates to vegetation in a seagrass bed. II. Experiments on the importance of macrophyte shape, epiphyte cover and predation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Short, F., Carruthers, T., Dennison, W., and Waycott, M. (2007). Global seagrass distribution and diversity: a bioregional model. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 350, 3–20.
| Global seagrass distribution and diversity: a bioregional model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Short, F. T., Polidoro, B., Livingstone, S. R., Carpenter, K. E., Bandeira, S., Bujang, J. S., Calumpong, H. P., Carruthers, T. J., Coles, R. G., and Dennison, W. C. (2011). Extinction risk assessment of the world’s seagrass species. Biological Conservation 144, 1961–1971.
| Extinction risk assessment of the world’s seagrass species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stoner, A. W., and Lewis, F. G. (1985). The influence of quantitative and qualitative aspects of habitat complexity in tropical seagrass meadows. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 94, 19–40.
| The influence of quantitative and qualitative aspects of habitat complexity in tropical seagrass meadows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomsen, M. S. (2010). Experimental evidence for positive effects of invasive seaweed on native invertebrates via habitat-formation in a seagrass bed. Aquatic Invasions 5, 341–346.
| Experimental evidence for positive effects of invasive seaweed on native invertebrates via habitat-formation in a seagrass bed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomsen, M., Wernberg, T., Altieri, A., Tuya, F., Gulbransen, D., McGlathery, K. J., Holmer, M., and Silliman, B. R. (2010). Habitat cascades: the conceptual context and global relevance of facilitation cascades via habitat formation and modification. Integrative and Comparative Biology 50, 158–175.
| Habitat cascades: the conceptual context and global relevance of facilitation cascades via habitat formation and modification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21558196PubMed |
Thomsen, M., Wernberg, T., Engelen, A. H., Tuya, F., Vanderklift, M. A., Holmer, M., McGlathery, K. J., Arenas, F., Kotta, J., and Silliman, B. R. (2012a). A meta-analysis of seaweed impacts on seagrasses: generalities and knowledge gaps. PLoS One 7, e28595.
| A meta-analysis of seaweed impacts on seagrasses: generalities and knowledge gaps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22253693PubMed |
Thomsen, M., De Bettignies, T., Wernberg, T., Holmer, M., and Debeuf, B. (2012b). Harmful algae are not harmful to everyone. Harmful Algae 16, 74–80.
| Harmful algae are not harmful to everyone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomsen, M. S., Stæhr, P. A., Nejrup, L., and Schiel, D. R. (2013). Effects of the invasive macroalgae Gracilaria vermiculophylla on two co-occurring foundation species and associated invertebrates. Aquatic Invasions 8, 133–145.
| Effects of the invasive macroalgae Gracilaria vermiculophylla on two co-occurring foundation species and associated invertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomsen, M., Hildebrand, T., South, P. M., Foster, T., Siciliano, A., Oldach, E., and Schiel, D. R. (2016). A sixth‐level habitat cascade increases biodiversity in an intertidal estuary. Ecology and Evolution 6, 8291–8303.
| A sixth‐level habitat cascade increases biodiversity in an intertidal estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27878096PubMed |
Thomsen, M., Altieri, A. H., Angelini, C., Bishop, M. J., Gribben, P. E., Lear, G., He, Q., Schiel, D. R., Silliman, B. R., South, P. M., Watson, D. M., Wernberg, T., and Zotz, G. (2018). Secondary foundation species enhance biodiversity. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2, 634–639.
| Secondary foundation species enhance biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thrush, S., Hewitt, J., Cummings, V., Ellis, J., Hatton, C., Lohrer, A., and Norkko, A. (2004). Muddy waters: elevating sediment input to coastal and estuarine habitats. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 299–306.
| Muddy waters: elevating sediment input to coastal and estuarine habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Toyohara, T., Nakaoka, M., and Aioi, K. (1999). Population dynamics and reproductive traits of phytal gastropods in seagrass bed in Otsuchi Bay, north‐eastern Japan. Marine Ecology 20, 273–289.
| Population dynamics and reproductive traits of phytal gastropods in seagrass bed in Otsuchi Bay, north‐eastern Japan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner, S., and Schwarz, A.-M. (2006). Biomass development and photosynthetic potential of intertidal Zostera capricorni in New Zealand estuaries. Aquatic Botany 85, 53–64.
| Biomass development and photosynthetic potential of intertidal Zostera capricorni in New Zealand estuaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tuya, F., Hernandez-Zerpa, H., Espino, F., and Haroun, R. (2013a). Drastic decadal decline of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa at Gran Canaria (eastern Atlantic): interactions with the green algae Caulerpa prolifera. Aquatic Botany 105, 1–6.
| Drastic decadal decline of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa at Gran Canaria (eastern Atlantic): interactions with the green algae Caulerpa prolifera.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tuya, F., Viera-Rodríguez, M. A., Guedes, R., Espino, F., Haroun, R., and Terrados, J. (2013b). Seagrass responses to nutrient enrichment depend on clonal integration, but not flow-on effects on associated biota. Marine Ecology Progress Series 490, 23–35.
| Seagrass responses to nutrient enrichment depend on clonal integration, but not flow-on effects on associated biota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tuya, F., Png-Gonzalez, L., Riera, R., Haroun, R., and Espino, F. (2014). Ecological structure and function differs between habitats dominated by seagrasses and green seaweeds. Marine Environmental Research 98, 1–13.
| Ecological structure and function differs between habitats dominated by seagrasses and green seaweeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24836641PubMed |
Tuya, F., Betancor, S., Viera-Rodríguez, M. A., Guedes, R., Riera, R., Haroun, R., and Espino, F. (2015). Effect of chronic versus pulse perturbations on a marine ecosystem: integration of functional responses across organization levels. Ecosystems 18, 1455–1471.
| Effect of chronic versus pulse perturbations on a marine ecosystem: integration of functional responses across organization levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Underwood, A. (1980). The effects of grazing by gastropods and physical factors on the upper limits of distribution of intertidal macroalgae. Oecologia 46, 201–213.
| The effects of grazing by gastropods and physical factors on the upper limits of distribution of intertidal macroalgae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28309674PubMed |
Valentine, J. F., and Heck, K. L. (1993). Mussels in seagrass meadows: their influence on macroinvertebrate abundance, and production and macrophyte biomass in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Ecology Progress Series 96, 63–74.
| Mussels in seagrass meadows: their influence on macroinvertebrate abundance, and production and macrophyte biomass in the northern Gulf of Mexico.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vermaat, J. E., and Sand-Jensen, K. (1987). Survival, metabolism and growth of Ulva lactuca under winter conditions: a laboratory study of bottlenecks in the life cycle. Marine Biology 95, 55–61.
| Survival, metabolism and growth of Ulva lactuca under winter conditions: a laboratory study of bottlenecks in the life cycle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Waycott, M., Duarte, C. M., Carruthers, T. J., Orth, R. J., Dennison, W. C., Olyarnik, S., Calladine, A., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck, K. L., and Hughes, A. R. (2009). Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 12377–12381.
| Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19587236PubMed |
Webb, B. (1972). Fish populations of the Avon‐Heathcote estuary: 1. General ecology, distribution, and length‐frequency. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 6, 570–601.
| Fish populations of the Avon‐Heathcote estuary: 1. General ecology, distribution, and length‐frequency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Webster, P., Rowden, A., and Attrill, M. (1998). Effect of shoot density on the infaunal macro-invertebrate community within a Zostera marina seagrass bed. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 47, 351–357.
| Effect of shoot density on the infaunal macro-invertebrate community within a Zostera marina seagrass bed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wernberg, T., Smale, D. A., and Thomsen, M. S. (2012). A decade of climate change experiments on marine organisms: procedures, patterns and problems. Global Change Biology 18, 1491–1498.
| A decade of climate change experiments on marine organisms: procedures, patterns and problems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, S. L. (2007). Introduced species in seagrass ecosystems: status and concerns. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 350, 89–110.
| Introduced species in seagrass ecosystems: status and concerns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, K. A., Able, K. W., and Heck, K. L. (1990). Predation rates on juvenile blue crabs in estuarine nursery habitats: evidence for the importance of macroalgae (Ulva lactuca). Marine Ecology Progress Series 58, 243–251.
Worm, B., Reusch, T., and Lotze, H. K. (2000). In situ nutrient enrichment: methods for marine benthic ecology. International Review of Hydrobiology 85, 359–375.
| In situ nutrient enrichment: methods for marine benthic ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |