The sensitivity of fire activity to interannual climate variability in Victoria, Australia
Sarah Harris A B C , Neville Nicholls A , Nigel Tapper A and Graham Mills A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Earth, Atmosphere, Environment, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia.
B Fire and Emergency Management, Country Fire Authority, 8 Lakeside Drive, Burwood East, Vic. 3151, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: sarah.harris@cfa.vic.gov.au
Journal of Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems Science 69(1) 146-160 https://doi.org/10.1071/ES19008
Submitted: 14 December 2018 Accepted: 20 June 2019 Published: 11 June 2020
Journal Compilation © BoM 2019 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Climate change is expected to have an impact on fire activity in many regions around the globe. The extent of this can only be determined by first establishing the relationship between climate and fire activity. This study relates observed changes in fire activity in Victoria to observed changes in antecedent and concurrent climate parameters – maximum temperature, rainfall and vapour pressure, using data for 1972–2014. A first-difference approach was adopted to estimate the amount by which the observed changes in the climate parameters would have altered the fire activity in the absence of other confounding effects. This study provides a method for examining the sensitivity of fire activity to changes in climate parameters without the need to consider the complex response of fuel dynamics to future climates and changes in fire regime or fire management. We used stepwise multiple-regression to determine the months whose climate parameters explained much of the variance in the total number of fires (TNF) and area burned in a fire season. The best performing fire–climate models explained almost two-thirds of the variation in year-to-year variability of fire activity. The significant explanatory ability of the fire–climate models established in this study reveals the combination of climate parameters that closely relates to the observed year-to-year changes in fire activity, and this may provide an additional valuable resource for fire-management planning. Further, we explored the role changes in climate have had on the trend in fire activity. Natural logarithm of area burned and mean fire size have not significantly increased over the study period, but the TNF has significantly increased. We find that the observed increase in maximum temperatures and decrease in rainfall account for 26% of the observed increase in TNF for the 1972–2014 period. Therefore, most of the upward trend found in fire numbers must be due to factors other than climate (i.e. changes in fire occurrence, reporting/recording, land and fire-management changes). Additionally, this study concludes that total area burned should have also increased significantly due to the observed changes in climate and that improved fire-management practices may be offsetting this expected increase in the area burned. Finally, using the relationship established in this study between fire numbers and climate parameters, we estimate that a 2°C increase in mean monthly maximum temperatures could be expected to lead to a 38% increase in fire numbers.
References
Abatzoglou, J. T., and Williams, A. P. (2016). Impact of anthropogenic climate change on wildfire across western US forests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113, 11770–11775.| Impact of anthropogenic climate change on wildfire across western US forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Trans. Autom. Control 19, 716–723.
| A new look at the statistical model identification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Batllori, E., Parisien, M. A., Krawchuk, M. A., and Moritz, M. A. (2013). Climate change-induced shifts in fire for Mediterranean ecosystems. Glob. Ecol. Beogeogr. 22, 1118–1129.
| Climate change-induced shifts in fire for Mediterranean ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bedel, A. P., Mote, T. L., and Goodrick, S. L. (2013). Climate change and associated fire potential for the south-eastern United States in the 21st century. Int. J. Wildland Fire 22, 1034–1043.
| Climate change and associated fire potential for the south-eastern United States in the 21st century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bedia, J., Herrera, S., Gutiérrez, J. M., Benali, A., Brands, S., Mota, B., and Moreno, J. M. (2015). Global patterns in the sensitivity of burned area to fire-weather: implications for climate change. Agric. For. Meteorol. 214–215, 369–379.
| Global patterns in the sensitivity of burned area to fire-weather: implications for climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Beer, T., and Williams, A. (1995). Estimating Australian forest fire danger under conditions of doubled carbon dioxide concentrations. Clim. Change 29, 169–188.
| Estimating Australian forest fire danger under conditions of doubled carbon dioxide concentrations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blanchi, R., Leonard, J., Haynes, K., Opie, K., James, M., and de Oliveira, F. D. (2014). Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1901-2011. Environ. Sci. Policy 37, 192–203.
| Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1901-2011.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman, D. M. J. S., Murphy, B. P., Williamson, G. J., and Cochrane, M. A. (2014). Pyrogeographic models, feedbacks and the future of global fire regimes. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 23, 821–824.
| Pyrogeographic models, feedbacks and the future of global fire regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock, R. A., Cohn, J. S., Gill, A. M., Bedward, M., and Lucas, C. (2009). Prediction of the probability of large fires in the Sydney region of south-eastern Australia using components of fire weather. Int. J. Wildland Fire 18, 932–943.
| Prediction of the probability of large fires in the Sydney region of south-eastern Australia using components of fire weather.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock, R., Penman, T., Boer, M., Price, O., and Clarke, H. (2014). Divergent responses of fire to recent warming and drying across south-eastern Australia. Glob. Change Biol. 20, 1412–1428.
| Divergent responses of fire to recent warming and drying across south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, T. J., Hall, B. L., and Westerling, A. L. (2004). The impacts of 21st century climate change on wildland fire danger in western United States: an application perspective. Clim. Change 62, 365–388.
| The impacts of 21st century climate change on wildland fire danger in western United States: an application perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bryant, C. (2008). Understanding bushfire: trends in deliberate vegetation fires (Victoria) Issue 27 of Australian Institute of Criminology technical and background paper series Issue 27 of Technical and background paper series. (Australian Institute of Criminology.).
Bureau of Meteorology. (2012). Record-breaking La Niña events: an analysis of the La Niña life cycle and the impacts and significance of the 2010-11 and 2011-12 La Niña events in Australia. (Commonwealth of Australia: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)
Cardosa, M. F., Hurtt, G. C., Moore, B., Nobre, C. A., and Prins, E. M. (2003). Projecting future fire activity in Amazonia. Glob. Change Biol. 9, 656–669.
| Projecting future fire activity in Amazonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chen, I. C., Hill, J. K., Ohlemuller, R., Roy, D. B., and Thomas, C. D. (2011). Rapid range shifts of species associated with high levels of climate warming. Science 333, 1024–1026.
| Rapid range shifts of species associated with high levels of climate warming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke, H., Lucas, C., and Smith, P. (2013). Changes in Australian Fire Weather between 1973 and 2010. Int. J. Climatol. 33, 933–991.
| Changes in Australian Fire Weather between 1973 and 2010.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Collins, K. M., Price, O. F., and Penman, T. D. (2015). Spatial patterns of wildfire ignitions in south-eastern Australia. Int. J. Wildland Fire 24, 1098–1108.
| Spatial patterns of wildfire ignitions in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cramer, W., Yohe, G., Auffhammer, M., Huggel, C., Molau, U., Faus da Silva Dias, M. A., Solow, A., Stone, D., and Tibig, L. (2014). Detection and attribution of observed impacts Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability: IPCC Working Group II Contribution to AR5 ch 18, p 94. Available at https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap18_FINAL.pdf [Verified 22 April 2020].
Doerr, S. H., and Santin, C. (2016). Global trends in wildfire and its impacts: perceptions versus realities in a changing world. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Publ. 371, 20150345.
| Global trends in wildfire and its impacts: perceptions versus realities in a changing world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dutta, R., Das, A., and Aryal, J. (2016). Big data integration shows Australian bush-fire frequency increasing significantly. R. Soc. Open Sci. 3, 150241.
| Big data integration shows Australian bush-fire frequency increasing significantly.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Earl, N., and Simmonds, I. (2017). Variability, trends, and drivers of regional fluctuations in Australian fire activity. J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 122, 7445–7460.
| Variability, trends, and drivers of regional fluctuations in Australian fire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gould, J., and Cruz, M. (2012). ‘Australian Fuel Classification: Stage II’. (Ecosystem Science and Climate Adaptations Flagship CSIRO: Australia.)
Flannigan, M. D., Amiro, B. D., Logan, K. A., Stocks, B. J., and Wotton, B. M. (2006). Forest fires and climate change in the 21st century. Mitigation Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 11, 847–859.
| Forest fires and climate change in the 21st century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flannigan, M. D., Krawchuk, M. A., de Groot, W. J., Wotton, B. M., and, and Gowman, L. M. (2009). Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire. Int. J. Wildland Fire 18, 483–507.
| Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Giglio, L., Randerson, J. T., and van der Werf, G. R. (2013). Analysis of daily, monthly and annual burned area using the fourth-generation global fire emissions database (GFED4). J. Geophys. Res.: Biogeosci. 118, 317–328.
| Analysis of daily, monthly and annual burned area using the fourth-generation global fire emissions database (GFED4).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill, A. M., and Cary, G. J. (2012). Socially disastrous landscape fires in south-eastern Australia: impacts, responses, implications. In ‘Wildfire and Community: Facilitating Preparedness and Resilience’. (Eds D. Paton and F. Pedrosa.) pp. 14–32. (Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, IL, USA.)
Gill, A. M., Stephens, S. L., and Cary, G. J. (2013). The worldwide “wildfire” problem. Ecol. Appl. 23, 438–454.
| The worldwide “wildfire” problem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldammer, J. G., and Price, C. (1998). Potential impacts of climate change on fire regimes in the tropics based on MAGICC and a GISS GCM-derived lightning model. Clim. Change 39, 273–296.
| Potential impacts of climate change on fire regimes in the tropics based on MAGICC and a GISS GCM-derived lightning model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris, S., Tapper, N., Packham, D., Orlove, B., and Nicholls, N. (2008). The relationship between the monsoonal summer rain and dry-season fire activity of northern Australia. Int. J. Wildland Fire 17, 674–684.
| The relationship between the monsoonal summer rain and dry-season fire activity of northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris, S., Nicholls, N., and Tapper, N. (2014). Forecasting fire activity in Victoria, Australia, using antecedent climate variables and ENSO indices. Int. J. Wildland Fire 23, 173–184.
| Forecasting fire activity in Victoria, Australia, using antecedent climate variables and ENSO indices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris. S., Mills, G., and Brown, T. (June 2016). Characterising fire weather for Victoria, Australia. Report to the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning.
Hennessy, K., Lucas, C., Nicholls, N., Bathols, J., Suppiah, R., and Ricketts, J. (2005). Climate Change impacts on fire-weather in south-east Australia. (Consultancy report. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research and the Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology.)
Higuera, P. E., Abatzoglou, J. T., Littell, J. S., and Morgan, P. (2015). The changing strength and nature of fire-climate relationships in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA 1902–2008. PLoS One , .
| The changing strength and nature of fire-climate relationships in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA 1902–2008.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hughes, L. (2014). Be Prepared: Climate Change and the Victorian bushfire threat by Professor Lesley Hughes (Climate Council of Australia).
Jones, D. A., Wang, W., and Fawcett, R. (2009). High-quality spatial climate data-sets for Australia. Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J. 58, 233–248.
| High-quality spatial climate data-sets for Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jolly, W. M., Cochrane, M. A., Freeborn, P. H., Holden, Z. A., Brown, T. J., Williamson, G. J., and Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2015). Climate-induced variations in global wildfire danger from 1979 to 2013. Nat. Commun. 6, 7537.
| Climate-induced variations in global wildfire danger from 1979 to 2013.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keane, R. E., Cary, G. J., and Flannigan, M. D. (2013). Exploring the role of fire, succession, climate, and weather on landscape dynamics using comparative modelling. Ecol. Modell. 266, 172–186.
| Exploring the role of fire, succession, climate, and weather on landscape dynamics using comparative modelling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley, J. E., and Syphard, A. D. (2015). Different fire–climate relationships on forested and non-forested landscapes in the Sierra Nevada ecoregion. Int. J. Wildland Fire 24, 27–36.
| Different fire–climate relationships on forested and non-forested landscapes in the Sierra Nevada ecoregion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley, J. E., and Syphard, A. D. (2016). Climate change and future fire regimes: examples from California. Geosciences 6, 37.
| Climate change and future fire regimes: examples from California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley, J. E., and Syphard, A. D. (2017). Different historical fire-climate patterns in California. Int. J. Wildland Fire 26, 253–268.
| Different historical fire-climate patterns in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
King, A. D., Alexander, L. V., and Donat, M. G. (2012). The efficacy of using gridded data to examine extreme rainfall characteristics: a case study for Australia. Int. J. Climatol. 33, 2376–2387.
| The efficacy of using gridded data to examine extreme rainfall characteristics: a case study for Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koutsias, N., Xanthopoulos, G., Founda, D., Xystrakis, F., Nioti, F., Pleniou, M., Mallinis, G., and, and Arianoutsou, M. (2013.). On the relationships between forest fires and weather conditions in Greece from long-term national observations (1894–2010). Int. J. Wildland Fire 22, 493–507.
| On the relationships between forest fires and weather conditions in Greece from long-term national observations (1894–2010).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krawchuk, M. A., and Moritz, M. A. (2011). Constraints on global fire activity vary across a resource gradient. Ecology 92, 121–132.
| Constraints on global fire activity vary across a resource gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Littell, J. S., McKenzie, D., Peterson, D. L., and Westerling, A. L. (2009). Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916–2003. Ecol. Appl. 19, 1003–1021.
| Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916–2003.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Littell, J. S., Peterson, D. L., Riley, K. L., Liu, Y., and Luce, C. H. (2016). A review of the relationships between drought and forest fire in the United States. Glob. Change Biol. 22, 2353–2369.
| A review of the relationships between drought and forest fire in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lobell, D. B., and Field, C. B. (2007). Global scale climate-crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent warming. Environ. Res. Lett. 2, 014002.
| Global scale climate-crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent warming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lucas, C., Hennessy, K., Mills, G., and Bathols, J. (2007). Bushfire weather in Southeast Australia: Recent trends and projected climate change impacts. Consultancy report prepared for the Climatic Institute of Australia. (Bushfire CRC and Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research.)
McKenzie, D. Z., Gedalof, Z., Peterson, D. L., and Mote, P. (2004). Climatic change, wildfire and conservation. Conserv. Biol. 18, 890–902.
| Climatic change, wildfire and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meyn, A., White, P. S., Buhk, C., and Jentsch, A. (2007). Environmental drivers of large, infrequent wildfires: the emerging conceptual model. Progr. Phys. Geogr. 31, 287–312.
| Environmental drivers of large, infrequent wildfires: the emerging conceptual model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morehouse, B. J., Christopherson, M., Crimmins, M. A., Orr, B., Overpeck, J. T., Swetnam, T., and Yool, S. (2006). Modeling Interactions among Wildland Fire, Climate and Society in the Context of Climatic Variability and Change in the Southwest US in Regional Climate Change and Variability. In ‘Impacts and Responses’. (Eds M. Ruth, K. Donaghy, P. Kirshen.) pp. 58–78. (Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, UK.)
Moritz, M. A., Batllori, E., Bradstock, R. A., Gill, A. M., Handmer, J., Hessburg, P. F., Leonard, J., McCaffrey, S., Odion, D. C., Schoennagel, T., and Syphard, A. D. (2014). Learning to coexist with wildfire. Nature 515, 58–66.
| Learning to coexist with wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moritz, M. A., Parisien, M. -A., Batllori, E., Krawchuk, M. A., Van Dorn, J., Ganz, D. J., and Hayhoe, K. (2012). Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity. Ecosphere 3, 1–22.
| Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morton, D. C., Collatz, G. J., Wang, D., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., and Chen, Y. (2013). Satellite-based assessment of climate controls on US burned area. Biogeosciences 10, 247–260.
| Satellite-based assessment of climate controls on US burned area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy, B. F., and Timbal, B. (2008). A review of recent climate variability and climate change in southeastern Australia. Int. J. Climatol. 28, 859–879.
| A review of recent climate variability and climate change in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nolan, R. H., Boer, M. M., Resco de Dios, V., Caccamo, G., and Bradstock, R. A. (2016). Large-scale dynamic transformations in fuel moisture drive wildfire activity across southeastern Australia. Geophys. Res. Lett. 43, .
| Large-scale dynamic transformations in fuel moisture drive wildfire activity across southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nicholls, N., and Lucas, C. (2007). Interannual variations of area burnt in Tasmanian bushfires: relationships with climate and predictability. Int. J. Wildland Fire 16, 540–546.
| Interannual variations of area burnt in Tasmanian bushfires: relationships with climate and predictability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nicholls, N. (2009). Estimating changes in mortality due to climate change. Clim. Change 97, 313.
| Estimating changes in mortality due to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nicholls, N. (1997). Increased Australian wheat yield due to recent climate trends. Lett. Nat. 387, 484–485.
| Increased Australian wheat yield due to recent climate trends.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pausas, J. G., and Paula, S. (2012). Fuel shapes the fire-climate relationship: evidence from Mediterranean ecosystems. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 21, 1074–1082.
| Fuel shapes the fire-climate relationship: evidence from Mediterranean ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Phan, T., and Kilinc, M. (2015). Integrating Fire Ignition and Fire History Databases. Report to the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning.
Pitman, A. J., Narisma, G. T., and McAneney, J. (2007). The impact of climate change on the risk of forest and grassland fires in Australia. Clim. Change 84, 383–401.
| The impact of climate change on the risk of forest and grassland fires in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothermel, R. C. (1972). A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. Res. Pap. INT-115. 40 pp. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: Ogden, UT, USA.)
Safford, H. D., Hayward, G. D., Heller, N. E., and Wiens, J. A. (2012). Historical ecology, climate change, and resource management: can the past still inform the future? In ‘Historical Environmental Variation in Conservation and Natural Resource Management’. (Eds J. A. Wiens, G. D. Hayward, H. D. Safford, C. M. Giffen) pp. 46–62. (Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK.)
Stocks, B. J., Fosberg, M. A., Lynham, T. J., Mearns, L., and Wooton, B. M. (1998). Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests. Clim. Change 38, 1–13.
| Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Teague, B., McLeod, R., and Pascoe, S. 2010. 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission: Final Report. (Parliament of Victoria: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.) Available at http://royalcommission.vic.gov.au/Commission-Reports/Final-Report.html [Verified 8 July 2019].
Trouet, V., Taylor, A. H., Carleton, A. M., and Skinner, C. N. (2009). Interannual variations in fire weather, fire extent, and synoptic-scale circulation patterns in northern California and Oregon. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 95, 349–360.
| Interannual variations in fire weather, fire extent, and synoptic-scale circulation patterns in northern California and Oregon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turco, M., Llasat, M. C., von Hardenberg, J., and Provenzale, A. (2014). Climate change impacts on wildfires in a Mediterranean environment. Clim. Change 125, 369–380.
| Climate change impacts on wildfires in a Mediterranean environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Urbieta, I., Zavala, G., Bedia, J., Gutiérrez, J., San Miguel-Ayanz, J., Camia, A., Keeley, J. E., and Moreno, J. M. (2015). Fire activity as a function of fire–weather seasonal severity and antecedent climate across spatial scales in southern Europe and Pacific western USA. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 114013.
| Fire activity as a function of fire–weather seasonal severity and antecedent climate across spatial scales in southern Europe and Pacific western USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Veraverbeke, S., Rogers, B. M., Goulden, M. L., Jandt, R. R., Miller, C. E., Wiggins, E. B., and Randerson, J. T. (2017). Lightning as a major driver of recent large fire years in North American boreal forests. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 529–534.
| Lightning as a major driver of recent large fire years in North American boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Webb, L. B., and Hennessy, K. 2015. Projections for selected Australian cities. (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology: Australia.) Available at http://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/media/ccia/2.1.5/cms_page_media/176/CCIA_Australian_cities_1.pdf [Verified 19 May 2016].
Westerling, A. L., and Bryant, B. P. (2008). Climate change and wildfire in California. Clim. Change 87, 231–249.
| Climate change and wildfire in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williamson, G. J., Prior, L. D., Jolly, W. M., Cochrane, M. A., Murphy, B. P., and Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2016). Measurement of inter- and intra-annual variability of fire activity at a continental scale: the Australian case. Environ. Res. Lett. 11, 035003.
| Measurement of inter- and intra-annual variability of fire activity at a continental scale: the Australian case.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wotton, B. M., Martell, D. L., and Logan, K. A. (2003). Climate change and people-caused fire occurrence in Ontario. Clim. Change 60, 275–295.
| Climate change and people-caused fire occurrence in Ontario.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
