Register      Login
Australian Energy Producers Journal Australian Energy Producers Journal Society
Journal of Australian Energy Producers
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Mercury management during decommissioning: predicting accumulation and mitigating risk of release

Luke Ellery A , Peter Crafts B , Andrew Sturgeon C and Amit Rajani A *
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Genesis, Perth, WA, Australia.

B Genesis, Westhill, Aberdeen, UK.

C Genesis, St Pauls, London, UK.

* Correspondence to: amit.rajani@genesisenergies.com

The APPEA Journal 63 273-284 https://doi.org/10.1071/AJ22136
Submitted: 8 December 2022  Accepted: 9 January 2023   Published: 11 May 2023

© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of APPEA.

Abstract

In 2021, Australia ratified the Minamata Convention on mercury, an international treaty that seeks to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. Mercury is a highly toxic metal with damaging effects even at extremely low concentrations. Decommissioning of pipelines and topside equipment that have processed fluids containing even trace quantities of mercury may create significant hazards to personnel and the environment. This paper considers the various mechanisms by which mercury accumulates in process systems and addresses important considerations, to mitigate the risks of mercury release during decommissioning. Where production fluids contain trace quantities of hydrogen sulfide, in addition to mercury, then mercury can react with compounds in scale layers to form mercury sulfide deposits, incorporated within the scale. In addition, mercury may also physically adsorb onto steel surfaces and within porous scale layers, and if mercury condensation occurs then amalgams may form with susceptible metals. Where pipelines are coated or clad, mercury can still be physically or chemically adsorbed onto the pipeline at weld joints. Production fluids containing mercury may also permeate through spiral-wound metal carcass layers of flexible flowlines. Mercury trapped in the carcass voids may be retained after flushing, to be released later during recovery operations, presenting a risk to personnel and the environment. Estimating the quantity, forms and areas contaminated with mercury compounds supports future decommissioning strategy development and select mitigation measures that reduce risks to personnel and the environment to as low as reasonably practicable.

Keywords: accumulation, ALARP, corrosion, coupon, decommissioning, embrittlement, environment, hazardous, measurement, mercury, mitigation, offshore, onshore, pigging, pipeline, quantification, risk, species.

Luke Ellery graduated with honours, a Bachelor of Petroleum Engineering and a Bachelor of Commerce, from the University of Western Australia, in 2016. Luke has over 6 years of technical experience as an engineer in the energy and resources industry. Luke is an engineer for Genesis in Perth with experience including lead roles in mercury simulation and decommissioning studies, development planning and brownfield opportunity management for traditional and renewable energy projects. Luke has held various positions in committees such as Engineers Australia and the UWA Engineering Faculty.

Peter Crafts graduated with 1st class honours, Bachelor of Chemical Engineering, from the University of Teesside UK, in 1992. Peter has over 30 years of experience as a Chemical Engineer and Technical Safety Engineer, with experience gained in the oil and gas, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals industries, and an established track record of delivering lead roles in concept selection, process development, FEED, detailed design, commissioning and R&D for onshore and offshore projects. Peter is the Advanced Simulations Team Manager for Genesis in Aberdeen and is responsible for Genesis Global Mercury Consultancy Services and Mercury R&D Programmes.

Andrew Sturgeon completed his PhD in Materials Engineering at Warwick University, UK in 1986. Andrew has over 32 years’ experience covering both technical and management roles in materials and corrosion technologies, component manufacture and qualification, welding and fabrication processes and their application within several industry sectors including oil, gas and chemicals, and power generation. Andrew is a Fellow of the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (FIMMM) and a member of NACE and various Energy Institute committees.

Amit Rajani graduated with a 1st class Bachelor of Chemical Engineering from the University of Pune, India in 2000. Amit has over 22 years’ experience within the engineering, automation and consulting industry servicing oil and gas facilities, refineries and petrochemicals worldwide. Amit is a Study Manager with Genesis in Perth and has a proven track record in the delivery of concept selection/feasibility/pre FEED studies, brownfield engineering studies, FEED, detailed design and advanced simulations studies including mercury. He is a results driven professional with strong client-centric skills and an agile approach to project management.


References

ANZECC, ARMCANZ (2000) ‘Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Vol. 1.’, Paper No. 4, Chapters 1–7. (Australian and New Zealand Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand) pp. 3.4–5. Available at https://www.waterquality.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/anzecc-armcanz-2000-guidelines-vol1.pdf

Baker S, Andrew M, Kirby M, Bower M, Walls D, Hunter L, Stewart A (2021) Mercury Contamination of Process and Pipeline Infrastructure - A Novel, All- Encompassing Solution for the Evaluation and Decontamination of Mercury from Pipelines and Topside Process Equipment to allow Safe Disposal. Paper presented at the SPE Symposium: Decommissioning and Abandonment, Virtual.
| Crossref |

BiPro (2010) ‘Requirements for Facilities and Acceptance Criteria for the Disposal of Metallic Mercury.’ (European Commission: Brussels)

Campbell LM, Norstrom RJ, Hobson KA, Muir DCG, Backus S, Fisk AT (2005) Mercury and other trace elements in a pelagic Arctic marine food web (Northwater Polynya, Baffin Bay). Science of The Total Environment 351–352, 247–263.
Mercury and other trace elements in a pelagic Arctic marine food web (Northwater Polynya, Baffin Bay).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Carnes CL, Klabunde KJ (2002) Unique Chemical Reactivities of Nanocrystalline Metal Oxides toward Hydrogen Sulfide. Chemistry of Materials 14, 1806–1811.
Unique Chemical Reactivities of Nanocrystalline Metal Oxides toward Hydrogen Sulfide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Case R, McIntyre D (2010) Mercury Liquid Metal Embrittlement Of Alloys For Oil And Gas Production And Processing, In ‘CORROSION 2010’, 14th March 2010, San Antonio, TX. (NACE)

Chaiyasit N, Kositanont C, Yeh S, Gallup D, Young L (2010) Decontamination of Mercury Contaminated Steel of API 5L-X52 Using Iodine and Iodide Lexiviant. Modern Applied Science 4, 12–20.
Decontamination of Mercury Contaminated Steel of API 5L-X52 Using Iodine and Iodide Lexiviant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chevron (2010) Using Handheld XRF Technology to Determine Surface Mercury Concentration – the Yeh/Kibogy method. Workshop Presentation, 25 May 2010. Available at http://www.api.org/environment-health-and-safety/health-safety/process-safety-industry/industrial-hygiene-workshop/~/media/27da555536a849aa82b349e09dc92a74.ashx

Coulibaly M, Bamba D, Yao NA, Zoro EG, El Rhazi M (2016) Some aspects of speciation and reactivity of mercury in various matrices. Comptes Rendus Chimie 19, 832–840.
Some aspects of speciation and reactivity of mercury in various matrices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Crafts P, Williams M (2020) Mercury Partitioning in Oil and Gas Production Systems - Design Optimisation and Risk Mitigation Through Advanced Simulation. The APPEA Journal 60, 97–109.
Mercury Partitioning in Oil and Gas Production Systems - Design Optimisation and Risk Mitigation Through Advanced Simulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

EPA NSW (2014) Mercury Ambient Air Monitoring Results, Media Release. Available at https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/AA734839BC954710A28C70DCC028E21A.ashx?la=en

Galbreath KC, Zygarlicke CJ, Tibbetts JE, Schulz RL, Dunham GE (2005) Effects of NOx, α-Fe2O3, γ-Fe2O3, and HCl on Mercury Transformations in a 7-kW Coal Combustion System. Fuel Processing Technology 86, 429–448.
Effects of NOx, α-Fe2O3, γ-Fe2O3, and HCl on Mercury Transformations in a 7-kW Coal Combustion System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Janetaisong P, Lailuck V, Supasitmongkol S (2017) Pelletization of Iron Oxide Based Sorbents for Hydrogen Sulfide Removal. Key Engineering Materials 751, 449–454.
Pelletization of Iron Oxide Based Sorbents for Hydrogen Sulfide Removal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jones RG, Perry DL (1981) The Chemisorption of Mercury on Fe(100): adsorption and desorption kinetics, equilibrium properties and surface structure. Vacuum 31, 493–498.
The Chemisorption of Mercury on Fe(100): adsorption and desorption kinetics, equilibrium properties and surface structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kho F, Koppel DJ, von Hellfeld R, Hastings A, Gissi F, Cresswell T, Higgins S (2022) Current understanding of the ecological risk of mercury from subsea oil and gas infrastructure to marine ecosystems. Journal of Hazardous Materials 438, 129348
Current understanding of the ecological risk of mercury from subsea oil and gas infrastructure to marine ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Latimer G (Ascend Waste and Environment) (2021) ‘Hazardous Waste in Australia 2021.’ (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment)

Li D, Liu Q, Wang W, Jin L, Xiao H (2021) Corrosion Behavior of AISI 316L Stainless Steel Used as Inner Lining of Bimetallic Pipe in a Seawater Environment. Materials 14, 1539
Corrosion Behavior of AISI 316L Stainless Steel Used as Inner Lining of Bimetallic Pipe in a Seawater Environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lynch SP (1984) A fractographic study of gaseous hydrogen embrittlement and liquid-metal embrittlement in a tempered-martensitic steel. Acta Metallurgica 32, 79–90.
A fractographic study of gaseous hydrogen embrittlement and liquid-metal embrittlement in a tempered-martensitic steel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marshall W (1997) Atomic Absorption, Emission and Fluorescence spectrometry: Principles and Applications. In ‘Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry. Vol. 18’. (Eds JRJ Paré, JMR Bélanger) pp. 141–178. (Elsevier)

Mashyanov N (2021) Mercury in Gas and Oil Deposits: Corrosion Problem. E3S Web of Conferences 225, 01009
Mercury in Gas and Oil Deposits: Corrosion Problem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Merly C, Hube D (2014) Remediation of Mercury Contaminated Sites, Snowman Network: Knowledge for sustainable soils, Project No. SN-03/08, February 2014.

Pipa D, Morikawa S, Pires G, Camerini C, Santos JM (2010) Flexible Riser Monitoring Using Hybrid Magnetic/Optical Strain Gage Techniques through RLS Adaptive Filtering. EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing 2010, 176203
Flexible Riser Monitoring Using Hybrid Magnetic/Optical Strain Gage Techniques through RLS Adaptive Filtering.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Polychronopoulou K, Fierro JLG, Efstathiou AM (2005) Novel Zn–Ti-based mixed metal oxides for low-temperature adsorption of H2S from industrial gas streams. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 57, 125–137.
Novel Zn–Ti-based mixed metal oxides for low-temperature adsorption of H2S from industrial gas streams.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ridwan YS, Ariyani M, Maulana FA, Damara AF, Pertiwi TYR (2022) Mercury analysis in sediment using borohydric cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry: Performance characteristics and uncertainty estimation. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1017, 012008
Mercury analysis in sediment using borohydric cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry: Performance characteristics and uncertainty estimation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Safe Work Australia (2002) Health monitoring – Guide for mercury (inorganic), 2002. Available at https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/2002/health_monitoring_guidance_-_mercury.pdf

Schutz R, Clapp G, Mekha B, Peet M (2016) Resistance of UNS R56404 Titanium to Mercury Liquid Metal Embrittlement. In ‘CORROSION 2016’, 6 March 2016, Vancouver, Canada. (NACE)

Shafawi AB (1999) Mercury Species in Natural Gas Condensate. PhD thesis, University of Plymouth, Plymouth. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29817736.pdf

Spearman S, Bartrem C, Sharshenova AA, Salymbekova KS, Isirailov MB, Gaynazarov SA, Gilmanov R, von Lindern IH, von Braun M, Möller G (2022) Comparison of X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) Results for an Environmental Assessment at a Mercury Site in Kyrgyzstan. Applied Sciences 12, 1943
Comparison of X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) Results for an Environmental Assessment at a Mercury Site in Kyrgyzstan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thermo Fisher (2015) Technology Focus: X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) in Mining. Blog, 4 July 2015. Available at https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/mining/technology-focus-x-ray-fluorescence-xrf-in-mining/

Theyab MA (2018) Wax deposition process: mechanisms, affecting factors and mitigation methods. Open Access Journal of Science 2, 112–118.
Wax deposition process: mechanisms, affecting factors and mitigation methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tipping E, Lofts S, Hooper H, Frey B, Spurgeon D, Svendsen C (2010) Critical Limits for Hg(II) in Soils Derived from Chronic Toxicity Data. Environmental Pollution 158, 2465–2471.
Critical Limits for Hg(II) in Soils Derived from Chronic Toxicity Data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

U.S. EPA (1998) Method 7473 (SW-846): Mercury in Solids and Solutions by Thermal Decomposition, Amalgamation, and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry, Environmental Sampling and Analytical Methods (ESAM) Program, Rev. 0. Washington, DC.

United Nations (2022) Minamata Convention: Facts and Figures, June 2022. Available at https://www.mercuryconvention.org/en/minamata-convention-facts-and-figures

Wasson A, Asher S, Russ P (2013) Mercury Liquid Metal Embrittlement Testing of Various Alloys for Oil and Gas Production, In ‘CORROSION 2013’, 17 March 2016, Orlando, FL. (NACE)

WHO (2017) Mercury and Health. Fact Sheet, 31 March 2017. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health

Wiberg N, Holleman AF, Wiberg E (Eds) (2001) ‘Holleman–Wiberg’s Inorganic Chemistry’. (Academic Press)

Wilhelm SM (1999) Avoiding exposure to mercury during inspection and maintenance operations in oil and gas processing. Process Safety Progress 18, 178–188.
Avoiding exposure to mercury during inspection and maintenance operations in oil and gas processing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilhelm SM, Bloom N (2000) Mercury in Petroleum. Fuel Processing Technology 63, 1–27.
Mercury in Petroleum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilhelm SM, Nelson M (2010) Interaction of Elemental Mercury with Steel Surfaces. Journal of Corrosion Science and Engineering 13, Preprint 38

Wong SMAS (2021) Standard methods used for mercury analysis in the oil and gas industry. E3S Web of Conferences 287, 04012
Standard methods used for mercury analysis in the oil and gas industry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wu P, Kainz MJ, Bravo AG, Åkerblom S, Sonesten L, Bishop K (2019) The importance of bioconcentration into the pelagic food web base for methylmercury biomagnification: a meta-analysis. Science of the Total Environment 646, 357–367.
The importance of bioconcentration into the pelagic food web base for methylmercury biomagnification: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yamaguchi M, Tsuru T, Itakura M, Abe E (2022) Atomistic weak interaction criterion for the specificity of liquid metal embrittlement. Scientific Reports 12, 10886
Atomistic weak interaction criterion for the specificity of liquid metal embrittlement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |