Effects of pH value, chloride and sulfate concentrations on galvanic corrosion between lead and copper in drinking water
Ding-Quan Ng A and Yi-Pin Lin B C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore.
B Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Number 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan.
C Corresponding author. Email: yipinlin@ntu.edu.tw
Environmental Chemistry 13(4) 602-610 https://doi.org/10.1071/EN15156
Submitted: 24 July 2015 Accepted: 11 September 2015 Published: 23 November 2015
Environmental context. Galvanic corrosion has been recently reported as the main cause of lead contamination in drinking water in urban cities. Conditions that can deter or promote galvanic corrosion, however, are not well understood. Fundamental investigations exploring the mechanisms and processes involved in galvanic corrosion in drinking water could help to implement proper corrective measures to safeguard public health from lead contamination.
Abstract. This study investigates the effects of pH value, chloride and sulfate concentrations on galvanic corrosion between lead and copper in drinking water. We hypothesised that galvanic corrosion would occur immediately when a lead–copper couple is first formed and that the release of lead would be suppressed by the subsequent formation of lead corrosion products. Therefore, unlike previous long-term studies using harvested lead pipes, batch experiments employing high-purity lead and copper (99.9 %) wires under stagnant and completely mixed conditions were conducted for a 7-day period to test our hypotheses. It was found that enhanced lead release was indeed observed after the lead–copper couple was formed and the lead profiles after 48 h were strongly influenced by lead corrosion products formed in the system. Under stagnant conditions, reducing pH and increasing either chloride or sulfate concentrations promoted lead release, leading to the formation of lead corrosion products such as cerussite and hydrocerussite as experiments proceeded. The effect of chloride concentration on total lead concentration measured in the aqueous phase was similar to that of sulfate at the same molar concentration, showing that the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio may not provide a good indication for total lead concentration in water. This study provides essential information on fundamental mechanisms and processes involved in galvanic corrosion in drinking water and may be used to explain related phenomena observed in real drinking-water distribution systems.
Additional keywords: chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio, CSMR.
References
[1] D. Bellinger, A. Leviton, J. Sloman, M. Rabinowitz, H. L. Needleman, C. Waternaux, Low-level lead exposure and children’s cognitive function in the preschool years. Pediatrics 1991, 87, 219.| 1:STN:280:DyaK3M7gt1Sgsw%3D%3D&md5=e377a74c3daa0e4b2f890c1f0784889fCAS | 1987535PubMed |
[2] K. Weizsaecker, Lead toxicity during pregnancy. Prim. Care Update Ob. Gyns. 2003, 10, 304.
| Lead toxicity during pregnancy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[3] N. C. Papanikoloaou, E. G. Hatzidaki, S. Boonsalee, G. N. Txanakakis, A. M. Tsatsakis, Lead toxicity update. A brief review. Med. Sci. Monit. 2005, 11, 329.
[4] US Environmental Protection Agency Maximum contaminant level goals and national primary drinking water regulations for lead and copper final rule. Fed. Regist. 1991, 56, 26460.
[5] US Environmental Protection Agency National primary drinking water regulations for lead and copper: short-term regulatory revisions and clarifications. Fed. Regist. 2007, 72, 57819.
[6] Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th edn 2011 (World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland).
[7] Reducing Lead in Drinking Water: a Benefit Analysis. Draft Final Report, EPA-230-09-86-019 1986 (US EPA, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, Washington, DC).
[8] G. Rajaratnam, C. Winder, M. An, Metals in drinking water from new housing estates in the Sydney area. Environ. Res. 2002, 89, 165.
| Metals in drinking water from new housing estates in the Sydney area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XltFKitbw%3D&md5=b95bee9509208c5277587dcc86e2e91aCAS | 12123649PubMed |
[9] Minimizing exposure to lead from drinking water distribution systems, in Water Talk. HC Publication: 4153, Catalogue number: H128-1/07-513E 2007 (Health Canada). Available at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/alt_formats/hecs-sesc/pdf/pubs/water-eau/lead-plomb-eng.pdf [Verified].
[10] E. J. Kim, J. E. Herrera, Characteristics of lead corrosion scales formed during drinking water distribution and their potential influence on the release of lead and other contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 6054.
| Characteristics of lead corrosion scales formed during drinking water distribution and their potential influence on the release of lead and other contaminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXovFemsrc%3D&md5=f6f649f69b6be4aaac61fb758f8379d8CAS | 20704199PubMed |
[11] R. Renner, Reaction to the solution: lead exposure following partial service line replacement. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, a202.
| Reaction to the solution: lead exposure following partial service line replacement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20435548PubMed |
[12] M. Edwards, S. Triantafyllidou, Chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio and lead leaching to water. J. Water Works Assoc. 2007, 99, 96.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXns1OqtLs%3D&md5=e5e5a130cba78d847ca5deb4fa4268b5CAS |
[13] D. E. Kimbrough, Brass corrosion as a source of lead and copper in traditional and all-plastic distribution systems. J. Water Works Assoc. 2007, 99, 70.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXptFCmsL0%3D&md5=449a59b0174f1e49063f7aef0b4f687cCAS |
[14] R. Renner, Out of plumb: when water treatment causes lead contamination. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, A542.
| Out of plumb: when water treatment causes lead contamination.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20049189PubMed |
[15] C. Elfland, P. Scardina, M. Edwards, Lead-contaminated water from brass plumbing devices in new buildings. J. Water Works Assoc. 2010, 102, 66.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsFeitr3I&md5=cd86ca3e41bf03b32b3c34b566c8fa51CAS |
[16] H. Willison, T. H. Boyer, Secondary effects of anion exchange on chloride, sulfate, and lead release: systems approach to corrosion control. Water Res. 2012, 46, 2385.
| Secondary effects of anion exchange on chloride, sulfate, and lead release: systems approach to corrosion control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XivV2ntrs%3D&md5=9ce813b66d8fc1e9e5ae6edcdb6c7355CAS | 22374301PubMed |
[17] A. Dudi, Reconsidering lead corrosion in drinking water: product testing, direct chloramines attack and galvanic corrosion 2004, M. Sc.(Environ. Eng.) thesis, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.
[18] C. K. Nguyen, K. R. Stone, A. Dudi, M. A. Edwards, Corrosive microenvironments at lead solder surfaces arising from galvanic corrosion with copper pipe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 7076.
| Corrosive microenvironments at lead solder surfaces arising from galvanic corrosion with copper pipe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVKrsL%2FM&md5=1e4d5c2f28e6cf25db98be347e8a6bc6CAS | 20738129PubMed |
[19] D. A. Jones, Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, 2nd edn 2005 (Pearson Education Inc.: NJ, USA).
[20] R. J. Oliphant, Summary Report on the Contamination of Potable Water by Lead from Soldered Joints, 125E 1983 (Water Research Centre: Swindon, UK).
[21] R. Gregory, Galvanic corrosion of lead solder in copper pipework. Water Environ. J. 1990, 4, 112.
| Galvanic corrosion of lead solder in copper pipework.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXksF2ntLk%3D&md5=6a5c95ac857ac8eed63030e8394d742cCAS |
[22] C. K. Nguyen, K. R. Stone, M. A. Edwards, Chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio: practical studies in galvanic corrosion of lead solder. J. Water Works Assoc. 2011, 103, 81.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVeksLw%3D&md5=e95ffe1602c87127ae04ef800a6cafc8CAS |
[23] C. Cartier, Identification and treatment of major sources of lead in drinking water 2012, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil, Geological, and Mining Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, QC, Canada.
[24] Y. Wang, V. Mehta, G. J. Welter, D. E. Giammar, Effect of connection methods on lead release from galvanic corrosion. J. Water Works Assoc. 2013, 105, E337.
| Effect of connection methods on lead release from galvanic corrosion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[25] G. R. Boyd, S. H. Reiber, M. S. McFadden, G. V. Korshin, Effects of changing water quality on galvanic coupling. J. Water Works Assoc. 2012, 104, 45.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XksF2is7w%3D&md5=c75dc4e538f932472947bf60768c089dCAS |
[26] Y. Wang, H. Jing, V. Mehta, G. J. Welter, D. E. Giammer, Impact of galvanic corrosion on lead release from aged lead service lines. Water Res. 2012, 46, 5049.
| Impact of galvanic corrosion on lead release from aged lead service lines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhtVymsL7F&md5=16b9636d90e24d7c5614deb6f20726cfCAS | 22835836PubMed |
[27] R. B. Arnold, M. Edwards, Potential reversal and the effects of flow pattern on galvanic corrosion of lead. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 10 941.
| Potential reversal and the effects of flow pattern on galvanic corrosion of lead.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xht1WqurzE&md5=5310d895d0828c6301134203a62009c3CAS |
[28] C. Cartier, R. B. Arnold, S. Triantafyllidou, M. Prévost, M. Edwards, Effect of flow rate and lead/copper pipe sequence on lead release from service lines. Water Res. 2012, 46, 4142.
| Effect of flow rate and lead/copper pipe sequence on lead release from service lines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XotFKlsLs%3D&md5=9d7fa5d6c4b14fc857c08ed286b370d7CAS | 22677500PubMed |
[29] M. R. Schock, R. N. Hyland, M. M. Welch, Occurrence of contaminant accumulation in lead pipe scales from domestic drinking-water distribution systems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 4285.
| Occurrence of contaminant accumulation in lead pipe scales from domestic drinking-water distribution systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXoslyjug%3D%3D&md5=3402aa5f8b9d9f1f2ae14baee23693cbCAS | 18613340PubMed |
[30] Method 200.8: Determination of Trace Element in Waters and Wastes by ICP-MS, Revision 5.4 1994 (US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory: Cincinnati, OH).
[31] Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 2012 (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation: Washington, DC).
[32] N. Birks, F. A. Pettit, Erosion-corrosion and wear. J. Phys. IV 1993, 03, C9-667.
| Erosion-corrosion and wear.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[33] H. Liu, K. D. Schonberger, G. V. Korshin, J. F. Ferguson, P. Meyerhofer, E. Desormeaux, H. Luckenbach, Effects of blending of desalinated water with treated surface drinking water on copper and lead release. Water Res. 2010, 44, 4057.
| Effects of blending of desalinated water with treated surface drinking water on copper and lead release.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXotlSlsrc%3D&md5=174cdf1e9338d5b2855a5ac4423c38dbCAS | 20570313PubMed |
[34] X. G. Zhang, Crystalline alloys: zinc, in Environmental Degradation of Advanced and Traditional Engineering Materials (Eds L. H. Hihara, R. P. I. Adler, R. M. Latanision) 2014, pp. 251 (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton, FL, USA).
[35] H. Liu, G. B. Korshin, J. F. Ferguson, Investigation of the kinetics of the oxidation of cerussite and hydrocerussite by chlorine. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 3241.
| Investigation of the kinetics of the oxidation of cerussite and hydrocerussite by chlorine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjsFagsr8%3D&md5=ae488b1e6cb52de3c9ca92bfd909a40fCAS | 18522100PubMed |
[36] H. Liu, G. B. Korshin, J. F. Ferguson, Interactions of PbII/PbIV solid phases with chlorine and their effects on lead release. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 3278.
| Interactions of PbII/PbIV solid phases with chlorine and their effects on lead release.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXjs1ahtbo%3D&md5=02b3fee6de376975b734ee25ece4addeCAS | 19534147PubMed |
[37] Y. Xie, D. E. Giammar, Effects of flow and water chemistry on lead release rates from pipe scales. Water Res. 2011, 45, 6525.
| Effects of flow and water chemistry on lead release rates from pipe scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVWktb3L&md5=13c6d95b78c2f16c51f69be2e568aad2CAS | 22018527PubMed |
[38] Y. Zhang, Y. P. Lin, Determination of PbO2 formation kinetics from the chlorination of PbII carbonate solids via direct PbO2 measurement. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 2338.
| Determination of PbO2 formation kinetics from the chlorination of PbII carbonate solids via direct PbO2 measurement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhvFWjs7g%3D&md5=0a3127c9868e12aba816ce3c46b128baCAS | 21322551PubMed |
[39] M. J. Robin, M. A. Théolier, Preparation et proprieties de l’hydroxide de plomb. Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr. 1956, 116, 680.
[40] D. Marani, G. Macchi, M. Pagano, Lead precipitation in the presence of sulphate and carbonate: testing of thermodynamic predictions. Water Res. 1995, 29, 1085.
| Lead precipitation in the presence of sulphate and carbonate: testing of thermodynamic predictions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXktV2itbw%3D&md5=824787dd621cbb095b753f3c333407c1CAS |
[41] J. J. Lander, The basic sulfates of lead. Trans. Electrochem. Soc. 1949, 95, 174.
| The basic sulfates of lead.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaH1MXis12qtQ%3D%3D&md5=a7293ceac1f5ce62f0b405287541579eCAS |
