Effects of grazing on crop crown temperature: implications for phenology
Matthew T. Harrison A B D , Walter M. Kelman B and Jim M. Virgona CA Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 3523, Burnie, Tas. 7320, Australia.
B CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
C Graminus Consulting, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: Matthew.Harrison@utas.edu.au
Crop and Pasture Science 66(4) 235-248 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP13380
Submitted: 10 November 2013 Accepted: 3 February 2014 Published: 16 May 2014
Abstract
In many regions, livestock are allowed to graze grain crops during their vegetative development, before grain is harvested at crop maturity. Little is known of the effects of grazing on crop microclimate, particularly the effects of defoliation on crown temperatures. Knowledge of such effects is important because temperature is the main factor underpinning crop ontogeny, and ontogeny drives dry matter allocation, leaf appearance rates and the timing of anthesis, which are key determinants of grain yield. The primary aim of this study was to examine the influence of grazing intensity and duration on the crown temperatures of winter wheat crops grown at Canberra, Australia. A secondary aim was to examine the association between crown temperature and phenology. In 2007, wheat cv. Mackellar was grazed at intensity–duration combinations of low–short (LS, 33 sheep/ha for 31 days), heavy–short (HS, 67 sheep/ha for 31 days) or low–long (LL, 33 sheep/ha for 62 days). In 2008, cvv. Mackellar and Naparoo were grazed at the HS intensity-duration. Cubic smoothing splines were fitted to crown temperature data measured between the end of grazing and anthesis to facilitate identification of long-term trends and statistical differences caused by the effects of defoliation on crown temperature. Grazing treatments with greater intensity or longer duration significantly elevated maximum daily crown temperature; differences of 6–7°C were common in the month following grazing. Cubic-spline analysis showed that long-term trends in maximum crown temperature of the HS and LL treatments were significantly greater than corresponding temperatures of controls for the entire post-grazing duration. By contrast, effects of grazing on minimum diurnal crown temperature were small. Increasing biomass removal significantly delayed stem elongation and anthesis. We demonstrate that although initial phenological delays caused by defoliation are large, greater diurnal crown temperature fluctuation in grazed crops leads to greater growing degree-day accumulation between the end of grazing and anthesis. This increases the rate of thermal time accumulation during the post-grazing–anthesis period and is likely prominent in driving greater development rates of grazed crops. We further demonstrate that delays in phenology associated with grazing can be largely accounted for by a thermal time constant, with the LS, HS and LL treatments delaying stem elongation by ~52, 141 and 214 degree-days, respectively, above a base temperature of 0°C. Results from these experiments and interpretations herein will be of use in designing crop-grazing regimes, and in studies examining implications of defoliation on vegetative microclimate and on physiological feedback effects caused by elevated temperature.
Additional keywords: defoliation, dual-purpose, ecophysiology, growing degree-days, herbivory, ontogeny.
References
Angus JF, Mackenzie DH, Morton R, Schafer CA (1981) Phasic development in field crops II. Thermal and photoperiodic responses of spring wheat. Field Crops Research 4, 269–283.| Phasic development in field crops II. Thermal and photoperiodic responses of spring wheat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Auyeung DSN, Suseela V, Dukes JS (2013) Warming and drought reduce temperature sensitivity of nitrogen transformations. Global Change Biology 19, 662–676.
| Warming and drought reduce temperature sensitivity of nitrogen transformations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barney CW (1951) Effects of soil temperature and light intensity on root growth of Loblolly pine seedlings. Plant Physiology 26, 146–163.
| Effects of soil temperature and light intensity on root growth of Loblolly pine seedlings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28zht1GmtQ%3D%3D&md5=8fcddac8fbd9d45767d9e77cf7ac7964CAS | 16654344PubMed |
Cullis BR, Harden S, Lodge GM, Orchard BA (2004) Restoration and rehabilitation of temperate pastures using grazing management: a biometrical approach. In ‘Réhabilitation des pâturages et des parcours en milieux méditerranéens’. (Ed. A Ferchichi) pp. 447–451. (CIHEAM: Zaragoza, Spain) Available at: http://om.ciheam.org/article.php?IDPDF=4600205
Curtin D, Beare MH, Hernandez-Ramirez G (2012) Temperature and moisture effects on microbial biomass and soil organic matter mineralization. Soil Science Society of America Journal 76, 2055–2067.
| Temperature and moisture effects on microbial biomass and soil organic matter mineralization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVelsb7N&md5=4507dc62c71d864fc2f13ca4bafa3439CAS |
Davenport JR, DeMoranville C (2004) Temperature influences nitrogen release rates in cranberry soils. HortScience 39, 80–83.
Dove H, Kelman WM, Kirkegaard JA, Sprague SJ (2012) Impact of magnesium-sodium supplementation on liveweight gains of young sheep grazing dual-purpose cereal or canola crops. Animal Production Science 52, 1027–1035.
| Impact of magnesium-sodium supplementation on liveweight gains of young sheep grazing dual-purpose cereal or canola crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsVCgtbrO&md5=1b312662dc3c57ccdf4a130474a99a3dCAS |
Fischer RA (1975) Yield potential in a dwarf spring wheat and effect of shading. Crop Science 15, 607–613.
| Yield potential in a dwarf spring wheat and effect of shading.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fischer RA (1979) Growth and water limitation to dryland wheat yield in Australia—a physiological framework. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 45, 83–94.
Harrison MT, Kelman WM, Moore AD, Evans JR (2010) Grazing winter wheat relieves plant water stress and transiently enhances photosynthesis. Functional Plant Biology 37, 726–736.
| Grazing winter wheat relieves plant water stress and transiently enhances photosynthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXpt1Ckt7Y%3D&md5=4d01ff01ac0063f8f1ad068a96f99c2bCAS |
Harrison MT, Evans JR, Dove H, Moore AD (2011a) Dual-purpose cereals: can the relative influences of management and environment on crop recovery and grain yield be dissected? Crop & Pasture Science 62, 930–946.
| Dual-purpose cereals: can the relative influences of management and environment on crop recovery and grain yield be dissected?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison MT, Evans JR, Dove H, Moore AD (2011b) Recovery dynamics of rainfed winter wheat after livestock grazing 1. Growth rates, grain yields, soil water use and water-use efficiency. Crop & Pasture Science 62, 947–959.
| Recovery dynamics of rainfed winter wheat after livestock grazing 1. Growth rates, grain yields, soil water use and water-use efficiency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison MT, Evans JR, Dove H, Moore AD (2011c) Recovery dynamics of rainfed winter wheat after livestock grazing 2. Light interception, radiation-use efficiency and dry-matter partitioning. Crop & Pasture Science 62, 960–971.
| Recovery dynamics of rainfed winter wheat after livestock grazing 2. Light interception, radiation-use efficiency and dry-matter partitioning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison MT, Evans JR, Moore AD (2012a) Using a mathematical framework to examine physiological changes in winter wheat after livestock grazing: 1. Model derivation and coefficient calibration. Field Crops Research 136, 116–126.
| Using a mathematical framework to examine physiological changes in winter wheat after livestock grazing: 1. Model derivation and coefficient calibration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison MT, Evans JR, Moore AD (2012b) Using a mathematical framework to examine physiological changes in winter wheat after livestock grazing: 2. Model validation and effects of grazing management. Field Crops Research 136, 127–137.
| Using a mathematical framework to examine physiological changes in winter wheat after livestock grazing: 2. Model validation and effects of grazing management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, Sprague SJ, Hamblin PJ, Graham JM, Lilley JM (2012a) Refining crop and livestock management for dual-purpose spring canola (Brassica napus). Crop & Pasture Science 63, 429–443.
| Refining crop and livestock management for dual-purpose spring canola (Brassica napus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, Sprague SJ, Lilley JM, McCormick JI, Virgona JM, Morrison MJ (2012b) Physiological response of spring canola (Brassica napus) to defoliation in diverse environments. Field Crops Research 125, 61–68.
| Physiological response of spring canola (Brassica napus) to defoliation in diverse environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liebig MA, Kronberg SL, Hendrickson JR, Dong X, Gross JR (2013) Carbon dioxide efflux from long-term grazing management systems in a semiarid region. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 164, 137–144.
| Carbon dioxide efflux from long-term grazing management systems in a semiarid region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXnvFamuw%3D%3D&md5=d5eb7a46821d2e6c36f322497c9fbf06CAS |
Lodge GM, Orchard BA (2000) Effects of grazing management on Sirosa phalaris herbage mass and persistence in a predominantly summer rainfall environment. Animal Production Science 40, 155–169.
| Effects of grazing management on Sirosa phalaris herbage mass and persistence in a predominantly summer rainfall environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lodge GM, Murphy SR, Harden S (2003) Effects of grazing and management on herbage mass, persistence, animal production and soil water content of native pastures. 1. A redgrass-wallaby grass pasture, Barraba, North West Slopes, New South Wales. Animal Production Science 43, 875–890.
| Effects of grazing and management on herbage mass, persistence, animal production and soil water content of native pastures. 1. A redgrass-wallaby grass pasture, Barraba, North West Slopes, New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCormick JI, Virgona JM, Kirkegaard JA (2012) Growth, recovery, and yield of dual-purpose canola (Brassica napus) in the medium-rainfall zone of south-eastern Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 635–646.
| Growth, recovery, and yield of dual-purpose canola (Brassica napus) in the medium-rainfall zone of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGrath SR, Lievaart JJ, Friend MA (2013) Extent of utilisation of dual-purpose wheat for grazing by late-pregnant and lambing ewes and producer-reported incidence of health issues in southern New South Wales. Australian Veterinary Journal 91, 432–436.
Moncur MW (1981) ‘Floral initiation in field crops.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Orchard BA, Cullis BR, Coombes NE, Virgona JM, Klein T (2000) Grazing management studies within the Temperate Pasture Sustainability Key Program: experimental design and statistical analysis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 143–154.
| Grazing management studies within the Temperate Pasture Sustainability Key Program: experimental design and statistical analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parent B, Turc O, Gibon Y, Stitt M, Tardieu F (2010) Modelling temperature-compensated physiological rates, based on the co-ordination of responses to temperature of developmental processes. Journal of Experimental Botany 61, 2057–2069.
| Modelling temperature-compensated physiological rates, based on the co-ordination of responses to temperature of developmental processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmsVGnsrs%3D&md5=05cc64a3accb2a278f089d6c46b37d1cCAS | 20194927PubMed |
Passioura J (2006) Increasing crop productivity when water is scarce – from breeding to field management. Agricultural Water Management 80, 176–196.
| Increasing crop productivity when water is scarce – from breeding to field management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Patil RH, Laegdsmand M, Olesen JE, Porter JR (2010) Growth and yield response of winter wheat to soil warming and rainfall patterns. The Journal of Agricultural Science 148, 553–566.
| Growth and yield response of winter wheat to soil warming and rainfall patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Risch AC, Jurgensen MF, Frank DA (2007) Effects of grazing and soil micro-climate on decomposition rates in a spatio-temporally heterogeneous grassland. Plant and Soil 298, 191–201.
| Effects of grazing and soil micro-climate on decomposition rates in a spatio-temporally heterogeneous grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtVejtr3I&md5=b276b81b597212bf975f9b9bde9a787bCAS |
Sleeman JR (1979) ‘The soils of the Ginninderra Experimental Station, ACT.’ (CSIRO: Canberra, ACT)
Tanaka K, Hashimoto S (2006) Plant canopy effects on soil thermal and hydrological properties and soil respiration. Ecological Modelling 196, 32–44.
| Plant canopy effects on soil thermal and hydrological properties and soil respiration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tian LH, Bell LW, Shen YY, Whish JPM (2012) Dual-purpose use of winter wheat in western China: cutting time and nitrogen application effects on phenology, forage production, and grain yield. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 520–528.
| Dual-purpose use of winter wheat in western China: cutting time and nitrogen application effects on phenology, forage production, and grain yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Verbyla AP, Cullis BR, Kenward MG, Welham SJ (1999) The analysis of designed experiments and longitudinal data by using smoothing splines. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C, Applied Statistics 48, 269–311.
| The analysis of designed experiments and longitudinal data by using smoothing splines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Virgona JM, Avery AL, Graham JF, Orchard BA (2000) Effects of grazing management on phalaris herbage mass and persistence in summer-dry environments. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 171–184.
| Effects of grazing management on phalaris herbage mass and persistence in summer-dry environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Virgona JM, Gummer FAJ, Angus JF (2006) Effects of grazing on wheat growth, yield, development, water use, and nitrogen use. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 57, 1307–1319.
| Effects of grazing on wheat growth, yield, development, water use, and nitrogen use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wan S, Luo Y, Wallace LL (2002) Changes in microclimate induced by experimental warming and clipping in tallgrass prairie. Global Change Biology 8, 754–768.
| Changes in microclimate induced by experimental warming and clipping in tallgrass prairie.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zadoks JC, Chang TT, Konzak CF (1974) Decimal code for growth stages of cereals. Weed Research 14, 415–421.
| Decimal code for growth stages of cereals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
