Register      Login
Crop and Pasture Science Crop and Pasture Science Society
Plant sciences, sustainable farming systems and food quality
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > CP > AR07022
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contents Vol 58(12)

Nitrogen balances in temperate perennial grass and clover dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia

R. J. Eckard A B C , D. F. Chapman A and R. E. White A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Faculty of Land and Food Resources, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

B Department of Primary Industries, 1301 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank, Vic. 3820, Australia.

C Corresponding author. Email: rjeckard@unimelb.edu.au

Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 58(12) 1167-1173 https://doi.org/10.1071/AR07022
Submitted: 23 January 2007  Accepted: 30 July 2007   Published: 17 December 2007

Abstract

Nitrogen (N) fertiliser use on dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia has increased exponentially over the past 15 years. Concurrently, imports of supplementary feed onto dairy farms have increased, adding further nutrients to the system. These trends raise questions about the environmental effects of higher nutrient inputs to dairy farms. To gauge possible effects, annual N balances were calculated from an experiment where N inputs and losses were measured for 3 years from non-irrigated grass/clover pastures receiving either no N fertiliser (Control) or 200 kg N/ha applied annually as ammonium nitrate or urea.

Estimated total N inputs, averaged over the 3 years, were 154, 314, and 321 kg N/ha.year for the control, ammonium nitrate, and urea treatments, respectively, while N outputs in meat and milk were 75, 99, and 103 kg N/ha.year, respectively. The corresponding calculated N surplus was 79, 215, and 218 kg N/ha.year for the 3 treatments, respectively, and the ratio of product N/total-N inputs for the 3 treatments ranged from 50% in the control to 32% for both N treatments. Total N losses averaged 56, 102, and 119 kg N/ha.year, leaving a positive N balance of 23, 112, and 99 kg N/ha.year for the control, ammonium nitrate, and urea treatments, respectively.

The ratio of product N/total-N inputs or the N surplus may be useful in monitoring the efficiency of conversion of N into animal products and the potential environmental effect at a whole-farm scale. However, additional decision support or modelling tools are required to provide information on specific N losses for a given set of conditions and management inputs. Given the large range in N losses there is opportunity for improving N-use efficiency in dairy pastures through a range of management practices and more tactical use of grain and N fertiliser.

Additional keywords: ammonia volatilisation, ammonium nitrate, denitrification, dung, nitrate leaching, urea, urine.


Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment, the University of Melbourne, the Australian Research Council (grant no. C19804739), the Dairy Research and Development Corporation, Pivot Ltd, and Incitec Ltd for financing the study. In particular the authors thank Paul Durling for technical support.


References


van Beek CL, Brouwer L, Oenema O (2003) The use of farmgate balances and soil surface balances as estimator for nitrogen leaching to surface water. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 67, 233–244.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Brouwer F (1998) Nitrogen balances at farm level as a tool to monitor effects of agri-environmental policy. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 52, 303–308.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Castillo AR, Kebreab E, Beever DE, France J (2000) A review of efficiency of nitrogen utilisation in lactating dairy cows and its relationship with environmental pollution. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences 9, 1–32. open url image1

Dairy Australia (2006) ‘Dairy 2006: Situation & Outlook.’ (Dairy Australia: Southbank, Vic.)

Eckard RJ (1990) The relationship between the nitrogen and nitrate content and nitrate toxicity potential of Lolium multiflorum. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 7, 174–178. open url image1

Eckard RJ, Bartholomew PEB, Tainton NM (1995) The yield response of annual ryegrass Lolium multiflorum to varying nitrogen fertiliser application strategies. South African Journal of Plant & Soil 123, 112–116. open url image1

Eckard RJ, Chapman DF, White RE, Chen D (2004a) The environmental impact of nitrogen fertiliser use on dairy pastures. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology 592, 145–148. open url image1

Eckard RJ , Chapman DF , White RE , Smith A , Chen D , Durling PA (2001) Nitrogen balances in high rainfall, temperate dairy pastures of south eastern Australia. In ‘Proceedings of the XIX International Grasslands Congress’. São Pedro, Brazil, pp. 169–170. (Brazilian Society of Animal Husbandry: Piracicaba, Brazil)

Eckard RJ, Chen D, White RE, Chapman DF (2003) Gaseous nitrogen loss from temperate grass and clover dairy pastures in south eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 561–570.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Eckard RJ, Franks DR (1998) Strategic nitrogen fertiliser use on perennial ryegrass and white clover pasture in north-western Tasmania. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 155–160.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Eckard RJ , Mckenzie FR , Lane PR (1997) The ‘Pendulum Paradigm’—Trends in nitrogen fertiliser use on temperate grass/clover pastures. In ‘Proceedings of the XVIII International Grasslands Congress’. Canada. pp. 30.3–30.04. (Extension Service, Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada)

Eckard RJ, Miles N, Tainton NM (1988) The use of near infra-red reflectance spectroscopy for the determination of plant nitrogen. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 53, 175–177. open url image1

Eckard RJ, White RE, Edis R, Smith A, Chapman DF (2004b) Nitrate leaching from temperate grass and clover dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55, 911–920.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Field TRO, Ball PR (1982) Nitrogen balance in an intensively utlilised dairyfarm system. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 43, 64–69. open url image1

Genstat 5 Committee (1995) ‘Genstat for Windows reference manual supplement.’ (Numerical Algorithms Group, Oxford Science Publications: Oxford, UK)

Hanegraaf MC, den Boer DJ (2003) Perspectives and limitations of the Dutch minerals accounting system (MINAS). European Journal of Agronomy 20, 25–31.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Hawkins J , Scholefield D (2000) Leaching of dissolved organic N from grass–white clover pasture in SW England. In ‘Proceedings of the 18th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation’. Aalborg, Denmark. (Eds K Søegaard, C Ohlsson, J Sehested, NJ Hutchings, T Kristensen) pp. 378–380. (Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences: Aalborg)

Isbell RF (1996) ‘Australian soil and land survey handbook. The Australian soil classification.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)

Jones RM, Hargreaves JNG (1979) Improvements to the dry-weight-rank method for measuring botanical composition. Grass and Forage Science 34, 181–189.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ledgard SF, Penno JW, Sprosen MS (1997) Nitrogen balances and losses on intensive dairy farms. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 59, 49–53. open url image1

Ledgard SF, Penno JW, Sprosen MS (1999a) Nitrogen inputs and losses from clover/grass pastures grazed by dairy cows, as affected by nitrogen fertilizer application. Journal of Agricultural Science 132, 215–225.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ledgard SF, Sprosen MS, Brier GJ, Nemaia EKK, Clark DA (1996) Nitrogen inputs and losses from New Zealand dairy farmlets, as affected by nitrogen fertilizer application: year one. Plant and Soil 181, 65–69.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ledgard SF, Sprosen MS, Penno JW, Rajendram GS (2001) Nitrogen fixation by white clover in pastures grazed by dairy cows: temporal variation and effects of nitrogen fertilization productivity of white clover cultivars under intensive grazing, as affected by high nitrogen fertiliser application. Plant and Soil 229, 177–187.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ledgard SF , Williams PH , Broom FD , Thorrold BS , Wheeler DM , Willis VJ (1999 b) OVERSEER—a nutrient budgeting model for pastoral farming, wheat, potatoes, apples and kiwifruit. In ‘Best soil management practices for production’. (Eds LD Currie, MJ Hedley, DJ Horne, P Loganathan) pp. 143–152. (FLRC, Massey University: Palmerston North, New Zealand)

McGechan MB, Topp CFE (2004) Modelling environmental impacts of deposition of excreted nitrogen by grazing dairy cows. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 103, 149–164.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Kearney G (2003a) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 2. Growth rates, dry matter consumed, and nitrogen response efficiencies. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 471–476.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Kearney G (2003b) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 3. Botanical composition, nutritive characteristics, mineral content, and nutrient selection. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 477–485.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Riffkin P, Kearney G, McCaskill M (2003c) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 1. Nitrogen fixation by white clover. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 461–469.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

McKenzie FR, Ryan MJ, Jacobs JL, Kearney G (1999) Effect of rate and time of nitrogen application from autumn to midwinter on perennial ryegrass-white clover dairy pastures in western Victoria. 1. Growth and composition. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 1059–1065.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Mulier A, Hofman G, Baecke E, Carlier L, De Brabander D , et al. (2003) A methodology for the calculation of farm level nitrogen and phosphorus balances in Flemish agriculture. European Journal of Agronomy 20, 45–51.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Neeteson J , Hassink J (1997) Nitrogen budgets of three experimental and two commercial dairy farms in the Netherlands. In ‘Perspectives for agronomy—adopting ecological principles and managing resource use’. (Eds MK van Ittersum, SC van de Geijn) pp. 171–178. (Elsevier Science B.V.: Dordrecht, The Netherlands)

Packrou N , Dillon P , Stanger G (1997) Impact of pastoral land use on groundwater quality. Centre for Groundwater Studies Report No. 64, South Australia.

Peoples MB, Gault RR, Scammell GJ, Dear BS, Virgona J, Sandral GA, Pau J, Wolfe EC, Angus JF (1998) Effect of pasture management on the contributions of fixed N to the N economy of ley-farming systems. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 459–474.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Riffkin PA, Quigley PE, Cameron FJ, Peoples MB, Thies JE (1999) Annual nitrogen fixation in grazed dairy pastures in south-western Victoria. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 273–281.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Schenk JS, Westerhaus MO (1991) Population definition, samples selection and calibration procedures for near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Crop Science 31, 469–474. open url image1

Schröder JJ, Aarts HFM, ten Berge HFM, van Keulen H, Neeteson JJ (2003) An evaluation of whole-farm nitrogen balances and related indices for efficient nitrogen use. European Journal of Agronomy 20, 33–44.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Smith M (1992) ‘Expert consultation on revision of FAO methodologies for crop water requirements.’ (Land and Water Development Division, FAO: Rome)

Stace HCT , Hubble GD , Brewer R , Northcote KH , Sleeman JR , Mulcahy MJ , Hallsworth EG (1968) ‘A handbook of Australian soils.’ (Rellim Technical Publications: Glenside, S. Aust.)

Whitehead DC (1995) ‘Grassland nitrogen.’ (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)