Determinants of women small ruminant farmers’ perceptions of climate change impact in Northern Benin

Elodie Dimon; Youssouf Toukourou; Janvier Egah; Alassan Assani Seidou; Rodrigue Vivien Cao Diogo; Ibrahim Alkoiret Traore

doi:10.1071/AN23427

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

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Determinants of women small ruminant farmers’ perceptions of climate change impact in Northern Benin

Elodie Dimon

^A ^* , Youssouf Toukourou ^A , Janvier Egah ^B , Alassan Assani Seidou ^A , Rodrigue Vivien Cao Diogo ^C and Ibrahim Alkoiret Traore ^A

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A Laboratory of Ecology, Health, and Animal Production (LESPA), Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou, BP 123 Parakou, Parakou, Benin.

^B Society-Environment Laboratory (LaSEn), Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou, 01 BP 123, Parakou, Benin.

^C Integrated Production Systems Innovation Lab and Sustainable Land Management (InSPIREs-SLM), Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou, BP 123 Parakou, Parakou, Benin.

^* Correspondence to: dimelodie@gmail.com

Handling Editor: Robyn Alders

Animal Production Science 65, AN23427 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN23427

Submitted: 7 January 2024 Accepted: 12 February 2025 Published: 27 February 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Context

The effectiveness of adaptation strategies employed by women small ruminant farmers to combat climate change depends on the accuracy of their perceptions. However, these women’s perceptions are not well understood and are seldom considered in climate change adaptation policies.

Aims

The aim of this study is to analyze the perceptions of women herders of small ruminants on the effects of climate change in four communes in northern Benin.

Methods

A total of 120 women farmers were purposefully selected and surveyed. Sociodemographic parameters and the perception rates of these farmers were analyzed using a multinomial logit model to understand the determinants of climate change perception.

Key results

All surveyed women perceived the effects of climate change, such as delayed rains (73%), early cessation of rains (70%), floods (87.5%), irregular rainfall (62.5%), poor spatial distribution of rains (98%), increased heat (95%), reduced coolness (61.17%), increased strong winds (81%) and wind direction instability (64%) over the past 20 years. Age, education level, farming experience, family size, extension contact, the number of sheep and the number of goats were factors that contributed to evaluating these women’s perceptions of climate change.

Conclusions

In conclusion, climate change is making livestock farming highly vulnerable. It leads to a scarcity of pastoral resources and a deterioration in animal health. This study recommends promoting training actions for women pastoralists, so that they could be better prepared for preventing and coping with climatic disasters.

Implications

Future research should compare the differences in adaptation strategies implemented by men and women herders who are better prepared to prevent and cope with climate-related disasters.

Keywords: Benin, climate change perception, small ruminant farmers, women.

Introduction

Climate change is a global phenomenon causing the warming of the Earth’s surfaces and seas, and has become a crisis for humanity (Naqvi and Sejian 2011; Herrero et al. 2013; Feleke et al. 2016). The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases raises the average temperature, alters precipitation and increases the frequency of certain extreme events worldwide (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2019). The west African region is threatened by numerous natural disasters. In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in floods, droughts, disruptions of rainy seasons and heatwaves (IPCC 2012). Climate warming is most visibly evident in extreme weather events that directly impact west African populations (Dara 2013). These extreme events threaten food security, and are exacerbated by soil erosion, deforestation and desertification – a slow and potentially irreversible process (Ozer et al. 2010; Stringer et al. 2011).

The United Nations Environment Programme has identified 19 climate change ‘hotspots’ in west Africa, including Benin (UNEP 2011). Negative effects are observed on major cereal production, as well as on livestock and drinking water availability, and the collapse of the fishing sector (Defrance et al. 2017). The impacts of climate change are strongly felt by rural populations, and more specifically, by women (Gemenne et al. 2017). The impacts of climate change are numerous and complex, affecting both usable resources and animals and their management.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the temperature increase in sub-Saharan Africa, compared with the 20th century average, ranged from 0.3 to 1.5°C in 2017, compared with 1°C globally. On average, between 2001 and 2017, annual precipitation also decreased compared with the 20th century average by 8.5 cm in the Central African Economic and Monetary Community, 4.0 cm in the West African Economic and Monetary Union and 7.1 cm in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, compared with 2.8 cm for the entire planet. According to Blanfort et al. (2015), livestock systems are major contributors to climate change while simultaneously being a key component of agriculture. Livestock contributes to the livelihoods of nearly 20% of the world’s population, with 800 million impoverished people directly dependent on it (Herrero et al. 2013). Sheep and goats represent approximately 56% of the world’s ruminant population (FAO 2016). Small ruminant production plays a crucial socioeconomic role on various continents, particularly in Benin. Notably, cattle populations are less resilient than small ruminants (Corniaux et al. 2012). Livestock contributes to poverty reduction, food security, and promotes capitalization and socioeconomic integration of households. Women and young people have found small ruminant farming to be the fastest and easiest way to achieve financial autonomy (Diao and Dia 2015). Women play a vital role in livestock farming, contributing to autonomy, technical expertise and animal care (Jélu and Bourgeais 2015). They also appreciate the tangible nature of this work, and the balance it offers between professional and family life. According to COP21 (2016), women are the most affected by the impacts of climate change, because they have little control over resources and are often unemployed. Poor populations are the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Women constitute 70% of the 1.2 billion people who earn less than US$1 a day (World Bank 2012). In developing countries, rural women work in agriculture, producing basic foodstuffs. They produce between 60 and 80% of the food in developing countries, yet 60% of the world’s hungry are women, and they earn only 10% of the total agricultural income (Association Adéquations 2009). In Benin, small ruminant farming is an activity that provides income, financial security, and non-monetary services to rural and peri-urban families. It is mainly practiced by women, for whom it represents an important means of survival. Women are more vulnerable to climate change (Leila 2014). The perception of climate change refers to how local populations understand and interpret environmental shifts. How do women small ruminant farmers in northern Benin perceive climate change, and what impacts does it have on their livelihoods?

Materials and methods

Study area

This study was conducted in northern Benin, which faces numerous climatic challenges (Vodounou and Doubogan 2016). Northern Benin has a Sudanian-Sahelian climate, and is an area with significant large and small ruminant farming. The Borgou and Alibori departments are home to approximately 67% of the national cattle herd and 33% of small ruminants (National Association of Professional Organizations of Ruminant Breeders 2014). Small ruminants are concentrated in the northern regions of Benin (Borgou, Alibori, Atacora, Donga; Hounzangbé-Adote et al. 2011). These areas are most vulnerable to rainfall deficits and high insolation (Gnanglè et al. 2011; Mehu 2011). A total of eight villages were selected for this study. They are located in the communes of Tchaourou, Nikki, Gogounou and Malanville in northern Benin. In each municipality, two villages were selected (Fig. 1). The questionnaire was developed to understand the impact of climate change on small ruminant farming systems managed by women. This questionnaire collected various data related to the sociodemographic characteristics of female farmers, the structure of small ruminant farming systems, female farmers’ perceptions of climate change, the effects of perceived climate change on the productivity and health of small ruminants, as well as on the household, and finally, the adaptation strategies implemented (Table 1).

Fig. 1.

Survey sites of women small ruminant farmers in northern Benin; source: IGN, 1992.

Table 1.Study villages and livestock estimates.

Communes	Villages	Vegetation	Annual precipitation (mm)	Daily temperature (°C)	Total livestock estimates (n) * (PDC, 2017)
Malanville	Madécali Guéné	ZS	9049	35	20,562 sheep 30,138 goats
Gogounou	Gounarou Gogounou center	ZS	1051	28.2	29,057 sheep 22,826 goats
Nikki	Gah-Maro Sakabansi	ZSG	1100–1300	28–35	24,900 sheep 31,502 goats
Tchaourou	Adamou-gah Kaki-koka	ZSG	1100–1200	23–32	11,755 sheep 14,093 goats

Source: Communal Development Plan, 2017.

The surveys were conducted by the first author and a master’s student. We were proficient in the local language of the study area, so there was no need for an interpreter. The individual interview included a total of 40 questions, comprising multiple-choice questions and forced-choice questions, followed by focus group discussions with female farmers. The responses were then coded into distinct numerical values. The objectives of the individual survey were to gather the necessary information for a thorough analysis of the research questions, whereas those of the focus group were to verify the information obtained from the individual surveys. The same approach was used by Simelton et al. (2013) and Gebreeyesus (2017).

The municipalities were selected based on data from the National Association of Professional Livestock Organizations of Benin. We prioritized municipalities with a significant number of small ruminants in northern Benin. Agricultural development agents helped us identify accessible villages with a large number of female farmers. Thus, the sample size was chosen with the involvement of these agents. A purposive sampling technique was used to collect the data. This method involves interviewing an initial female farmer through agricultural advisors, who then referred us to another female farmer with small ruminants. This technique allowed us to obtain a precise and homogeneous sample of women, and to optimize our time.

Selection of research units and sampling

Women small ruminant farmers have limited access to natural resources and low participation in decision-making processes (Leila 2014). The research units consisted of women small ruminant farmers in the targeted villages. A total of 120 farmers were surveyed, with 15 farmers per village. They were selected using purposive sampling techniques. Only women who owned at least five sheep or goats (Touré and Ouattara 2001) were interviewed. Female small ruminant farmers voluntarily gave their consent, which could be withdrawn at any time. They were previously informed about the research activities and their benefits before participating, to ensure their voluntariness. We provided participants with all the necessary information to make an informed decision about participating in the research, and gave them time and opportunity to absorb the provided information, ask any questions they might have, and discuss and reflect on their participation. Activities only began once participants had given their consent. We used either written and signed consent or oral consent, depending on the participants’ level of education or literacy. Consent was maintained throughout the research. Interviews were anonymous and no unnecessary personal data about the interviewees were collected.

Data collection

Data collection was conducted from March to June 2021. A quantitative approach was employed through individual interviews using a digitized questionnaire on Kobo-Collect. Data on sociodemographic characteristics, such as age, farming experience, ethnic group, household size, number of agricultural workers, education level, contact with agricultural extension services and membership in farmer organizations, were collected. A second set of questions focused on the women farmers’ perceptions of climate change indicators, including causes, observed phenomena, impacts and effects.

Statistical analysis

The survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, statistical inference and the logit regression model with SPSS software (ver. 17). Descriptive statistics were used to calculate means and standard deviations of quantitative variables (e.g. age, size). The determinants influencing farmers’ perceptions of climate change were analyzed using binary logistic regression (Uddin et al. 2017; Kabore et al. 2019). The binary model equation is as follows:

Y_{i} = X_{i} β + ε_{i}

where: Y_i is the variable that takes the value one if the farmer perceives a change in a climate indicator and zero if she does not; X_i represents the set of explanatory variables indicating the factors influencing farmers’ perceptions of climate change; and ε_i is the standard error.

Before estimating the logistic regression model, explanatory variables were tested for multicollinearity using the contingency test of coefficients (Uddin et al. 2017). Collinearity was observed between farming experience and age; between the number of agricultural workers and household size; between membership in a farmer organization and contact with extension services; and between being Christian and Muslim. Consequently, age, number of agricultural workers, contact with extension services and Muslim were omitted from the logistic regression model after the multicollinearity test. The variables of farming experience, Christian, education level, membership in a farmer organization, household size and herd size were used in the regression.

Results

Sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewed women small ruminant farmers

The sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewed farmers are summarized in Table 2. The average age of the surveyed women farmers was 42 years. This activity was their primary source of income. Two ethnic groups were predominant in the study area: Peulh (45.83%) and Bariba (25.83%). Most of the farmers were uneducated (88.33%), and a small proportion (23.33%) were members of organizations. Additionally, more than half of the women were in contact with extension agents (51.67%), including veterinarians, to receive care and services for their animals. Islam was the most practiced religion (91.67%). More than half of the women (51.47%) had 10 years of farming experience. The majority of households (55.83%) consisted of eight people, and they had five agricultural workers. In this area, 62.5% of the women owned at least 11 sheep and six goats. Sheep farming was mainly performed through fattening. This type of farming provided these women with food and financial security. The production system was extensive, with animals roaming in search of food; during the cropping season, they were sometimes tethered or confined. In the dry season, they received a small supplementary feed.

Table 2.Sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewed women small ruminant farmers.

Variables	Categories	Scoring method	Respondents (%)	Mean	s.d.
Qualitatives variables
Ethnicity	Adja	Language spoken	0.83
	Bariba		25.83
	Dendi		13.33
	Gando		5
	Haoussa		5
	Mahi		0.83
	Peulh		45.83
	Sèmairè		1.67
	Zèrimen		1.67
Education level	Schooled	Dummy	11.67
Education level	Unschooled	Dummy	88.33
Membership in an organization	Yes	Dummy	23.33
Membership in an organization	No	Dummy	76.67
Contact with extension services	Yes	Dummy	51.67
Contact with extension services	No	Dummy	48.33
Religion	Muslim	Dummy	91.67
Religion	Christian	Dummy	8.33
Quantitatives variables
Age group (years)	20–35	Years	25.83	42.650	9.571
	36–50		54.98
	>50 year		19.16
No.r of years of experience in livestock farming (years)	Low (up to 9 years)	Years	40.01	10.483	6.962
	Medium (10–26 years)		51.47
	>26 years		7.52
No.of agricultural workers (persons)	1–5	Number	42.5	7.425	5.691
	5–10		37.5
	>10		20
Household size (persons)	0–10	Number	55.83	12.425	8.396
	10–20		34.17
	>20		10
Size of sheep flock (head)	0–10	Number	62.5	11.841	12.938
	10–20		18.33
	>20		19.17
Size of goat flock (head)	0–10	Number	79.17	6.766	7.983
	10–20		12.5
	>20		8.33

Farmers’ perception of climate change

Table 3 presents the perception rates of small ruminant farmers in northern Benin regarding climate change. The women farmers perceived climate change through the effects of climatic events on resources available for small ruminants and management techniques. They noticed some shifts in the start and end of the rainy season. Specifically, 73% of the women perceived delayed rainfall, and 70.4% noticed an early cessation of rains, whereas 33% reported a scarcity of rainfall. The majority of the women (87.5%) perceived frequent floods as a significant change. During the rainy season, excess water causes houses to collapse. The women also agreed on the irregularity of rainfall (62.5%) and poor spatial distribution of rain (98%). In this area, many women observed a decrease in the intensity of rainfall (52%), and a reduction in drought occurrences (70%). The impact of pockets of drought on small ruminant farming is poorly perceived by the women, given the small size of their herds. The increase in temperature was perceived through a rise in heat (95%) and a decrease in coolness (61.17%). The women farmers in northern Benin also perceived strong winds (82%) and instability in wind direction (64%).

Table 3.Perception rate (%) of small ruminant breeders in Northern Benin.

Parameters	Indicators of change	Increases	Decreases	No change
Rainfall	Late onset of rains	73	23.73	3,27
	Early cessation of rains	70.42	20.58	9
	Rain scarcity	33.33	65	1.67
	Floods	87.5	12.5	0
	Rainfall irregularity	62.5	31.5	6
	Poor spatial distribution of rains	98	0.83	1.17
	High rainfall intensity	44.17	52	3.83
	Drought occurrences	25.83	70	4.17
Temperature	Increase in heat	95	5	0
Temperature	Decrease in coolness	61.17	30.83	8
Winds	Strong winds	82	14.17	3.83
	Weaker winds	31.67	66	2.33
	Instability of wind direction	64	30.83	5.17

Determinants of small ruminant farmers’ perception of climate change

The factors influencing women farmers’ perceptions in the context of climate change were analyzed using binary logistic regression (Table 4). The interpretation of the results is based on the regression of the coefficient and probability (P > t). The continuous variables were age, education level, farming experience, household size, contact with extension services, number of sheep and goats, religion, delayed rains, prolonged rains, scarcity of rains, early cessation of rains, floods, irregularity of rains, increase in heat, decrease in coolness, periods drought, strong winds, weaker winds, and instability in wind direction, which were the dependent variables.

Table 4.Determinants of the perception of climate change by female small ruminant farmers.

	Age	Education level	Farming experience	Household size	Contact with extension service	No. of sheep	No. of goats	Christians	Constant
Rain delay
Coef.	−0.046	2.383	0.042	0.084	−3.607	0.055	−0.012	−2.066	9.26
T	−1.2	2.53	0.74	2.05	−5.09	1.97	−0.25	−1.58	5.13
P > t	0.234	0.013	0.458	0.042	0	0.052	0.804	0.116	0
Extended rains
Coef.	−0.044	−1.143	0.142	0.045	−2.378	−0.038	0.026	−1.014	8.821
T	−0.99	−1.04	2.15	0.95	−2.87	−1.17	0.46	−0.67	4.19
P > t	0.323	0.3	0.033	0.345	0.005	0.245	0.643	0.507	0
Early cessation of rains
Coef.	0.036	0.897	0.054	0.039	0.676	0.026	0.046	1.245	1.723
T	−0.5	−0.42	2.19	3.83	−6.25	0.73	−0.47	−2.44	4.44
P > t	0.62	0.672	0.031	0	0	0.466	0.638	0.016	0
Rain scarcity
Coef.	0.064	−0.9	−0.04	0.07	−3.202	0.077	−0.152	−0.292	2.118
T	1.5	−0.86	−0.65	1.55	−4.06	2.47	−2.81	−0.2	1.05
P > t	0.135	0.391	0.519	0.125	0	0.015	0.006	0.841	0.294
Floods
Coef.	−0.052	0.811	0.084	−0.061	−2.499	0.052	−0.03	−2.722	1.186
T	−1.72	1.1	1.88	−1.89	−4.47	2.36	−0.8	−2.65	8.34
P > t	0.088	0.276	0.062	0.061	0	0.02	0.426	0.009	0
Rainfall irregularity
Coef.	0.02	−0.605	0.241	0.059	−4.166	0.005	−0.037	−3.948	4.846
T	0.48	−0.58	3.84	1.31	−5.31	0.19	−0.7	−2.73	2.42
P > t	0.635	0.562	0	0.192	0	0.852	0.484	0.007	0.017
Increased heat
Coef.	−0.003	0.074	0.003	0.001	−0.118	−0.002	0.002	−0.203	1 108
T	−1.8	1.43	1.26	0.63	−3	−0.16	1	−2.8	10.99
P > t	0.075	0.156	0.212	0.531	0.003	0.874	0.318	0.006	0
Decreased coolness
Coef.	0.071	0.926	−0.126	0.113	−2.631	0.024	0.046	−1.559	4.667
T	1.62	0.87	−1.96	2.43	−3.27	0.77	0.84	−1.05	2.27
P > t	0.108	0.388	0.053	0.017	0.001	0.445	0.401	0.295	0.025
Drought occurences
Coef.	0.011	−0.226	0.007	0.129	−1.387	−0.062	−0.046	−1.171	1.566
T	0.26	−0.22	1.12	2.84	−1.78	−2.02	−0.87	−0.82	0.79
P > t	0.795	0.827	0.265	0.005	0.079	0.046	0.384	0.417	0.433
Strong winds
Coef.	0.013	0.642	0.024	−0.089	−0.736	0.069	−0.096	−0.166	8.998
T	0.38	0.76	0.49	−2.42	−1.16	2.74	−2.21	−0.14	5.55
P > t	0.702	0.449	0.626	0.017	0.25	0.007	0.029	0.887	0
Weaker winds
Coef.	0.073	−0.832	−0.084	0.141	−2.515	−0.009	0.03	−1.813	0.509
T	1.68	−0.78	−1.3	3.01	−3.12	−0.29	0.56	−1.22	0.25
P > t	0.097	0.438	0.195	0.003	0.002	0.773	0.578	0.224	0.805
Instability of wind direction
Coef.	0.032	−2.008	0.045	0.052	−5.269	0.105	−0.001	−2.749	5.86
T	0. 87	−2.19	0.82	1.29	−7.63	3.85	−0.04	−2.16	3.33
P > t	0.387	0.03	0.412	0.198	0	0	0.968	0.033	0.001

A positive coefficient implies an influence on the probability of perception for each unit increase in the dependent variable, whereas a negative coefficient describes the inverse relationship.

The age variable negatively influenced the perception of floods and increased heat at the 10% significance level, and positively influenced the perception of weaker winds at the 10% level. Older women farmers were less likely to perceive floods and increased heat, but were more likely to notice weaker winds compared with others.

The education level of farmers positively influenced the perception of delayed rains at the 5% level, and negatively influenced the perception of instability in wind direction at the 5% level. Educated farmers had quicker access to climate information through communication channels.

Farming experience positively influenced the perceptions of prolonged rains and early cessation of precipitation at the 5% level, floods at the 10% level, and rainfall irregularity at the 1% level. It negatively influenced the decrease in coolness at the 10% level. Women with extensive farming experience were more likely to perceive variations in rainfall and temperature.

Household size positively affected the perception of early cessation of rains, drought pockets and weaker winds at the 1% level. It also positively influenced the perception of delayed rains and a decrease in coolness at the 5% level. Additionally, it negatively affected the perception of floods at the 10% level and strong winds at the 5% level. Larger households were more perceptive of climate change, because the women’s farming income was allocated to family needs.

Contact with extension services positively influenced the perception of early cessation of rains at the 1% level and drought pockets at the 10% level. It negatively influenced the perception of delayed rains, prolonged rains, rain scarcity, floods, rainfall irregularity, increased heat, decreased coolness, weaker winds and instability in wind direction at the 1% level. The more the women interacted with extension agents, the less they perceived variations in rainfall, temperature and wind. Agricultural extension agents, research institutions, non-governmental organizations or rural development projects informed and trained village groups, but did not discuss climate change.

The size of sheep herds positively influenced the perception of delayed rains at the 10% level, rain scarcity and floods at the 5% level, and strong winds and wind direction instability at the 1% level. It negatively influenced the perception of drought pockets at the 5% level. Women with more sheep were more likely to perceive climate change.

The size of goat herds negatively influenced the perception of rain scarcity at the 1% level and strong winds at the 5% level. Women with more goats were less likely to perceive climate change.

Christianity positively influenced the perception of early cessation of rains at the 5% level. It negatively influenced the perception of floods, rainfall irregularity, increased heat at the 1% level and instability in wind direction at the 5% level. Christian women were less likely to perceive climate change compared with Muslim women.

Discussion

Sociodemographic characteristics of the female small ruminant farmers surveyed

The vulnerability of women to climate change stems from various social, economic and cultural factors. Women represent a significant percentage of poor communities who rely on natural resources for their livelihoods. In rural areas, they bear the burden of family responsibilities (UN 2018). In Benin, as in most African rural societies, women actively participate in agricultural production activities while also handling domestic tasks essential for family survival (Amadou et al. 2015).

Small ruminant farming is practiced within an extensive system, and serves as the primary source of income for Fulani and Bariba women. According to Djohy and Sounon Bouko (2021), livestock farming is the main activity for the Fulani, and the second for other sociocultural groups. The female farmers were aged between 28 and 62 years. According to Hitayezu et al. (2017), Rankoana (2018) and Amadou et al. (2015), age positively influences the ability to perceive changes.

The educational level of female farmers in northern Benin was low across almost all sociocultural groups. In Benin, women constitute the majority of illiterates (31% of women were reported as illiterate in 2018 by UNESCO). Their participation in organizations is minimal. This is corroborated by the findings of Guillén Velarde and de la Peña Valdivia (2012), which confirm that women rarely have access to information, and their ability to participate in organizations is limited. Additionally, some women cannot leave their homes without a male companion.

Farmers’ perception of climate change

The results of this study revealed a growing awareness among female farmers about climate change. Most of the small ruminant farmers acknowledged that significant changes in the climate have occurred over the past two decades. These findings align with Chingala et al. (2017), who confirmed that small-scale farmers reported climate variations. They perceived climate change through the delay of rains, prolonged rainy seasons, early cessation of rains, scarcity of rainfall, floods, irregular distribution of rainfall, increased heat, drought pockets, decreased coolness, strong winds, weaker winds and instability in wind direction. Our results are similar to those of Abraham et al. (2019) in Chad, Beye (2018) in Senegal and Nnko et al. (2021) in Tanzania, who reported that farmers perceived climate change through decreased rainfall and increased temperatures in all seasons. Similarly, our findings are consistent with Abdou et al. (2020) in Niger, Owusu et al. (2019), Idrissou et al. (2020), Djohy and Sounon Bouko (2021) and Egah et al. (2024) in Benin, who showed that farmers perceive climate change through rising temperatures, prolonged dry seasons, early cessation of the rainy season and reduced rainfall, with an increased frequency of violent winds. According to Diiro et al. (2016), in the Mopti region of Mali, 83% of respondents noticed an increase in strong winds. For Karimi et al. (2017), livestock farmers are highly vulnerable to extreme weather events. However, Guillén Velarde and de la Peña Valdivia (2012) showed that women’s perceptions are more related to water in the planet’s ecosystems and, consequently, to the life and well-being of humanity and nature. This difference is justified by the activities practiced by women. The low availability of fodder during the dry season allows women to perceive rainfall variability, temperature increases and strong winds.

Determinants of female small ruminant farmers’ perception of climate change

The main determinants for female small ruminant farmers were age, livestock experience, education level, household size, contact with extension services, flock size of sheep and goats, and religion. These results align with the work of Yegbemey et al. (2014), Kimaro et al. (2018), Afouda et al. (2020) and Idrissou et al. (2020), which state that socioeconomic and demographic characteristics help determine the effects of climate change. The binary logistic regression results showed that older female farmers are less likely to perceive floods and increased heat, but more likely to perceive weaker winds. Our results align with those of Owusu et al. (2019), who showed that younger people perceive climate change more due to their exposure to mass media and other modern communication technologies. Formally educated female farmers are more likely to perceive climate change. This result is similar to that of Sanogo et al. (2017) and Owusu et al. (2019), who observed that those with higher education levels have higher sensitivity to climate change. Experienced female farmers perceive the prolongation of rains, early cessation of precipitation, floods and irregular rainfall, and less so the decrease in coolness. This result shows that female farmers with more livestock experience are more likely to perceive climate change. According to Juana et al. (2013), Rankoana (2018), the more experienced livestock farmers have reliable memories of observing climatic phenomena and know more about rainfall patterns. Experience in livestock farming allows women to have a better grasp of fodder availability during the rainy season. In the dry season, they are forced to sell many small ruminants, even the breeding stock (Morton 2007; Mapiye et al. 2009). This would reduce the number of marketable livestock in the long term. These results are similar to those of Gbetibouo (2009), Sanogo et al. (2017) and Uddin et al. (2017), who concluded that experience is a potential determinant of the level of perception of climate change. This study shows that women in large households are more likely to perceive climate change. These households depend on natural resources that are under threat. This result is similar to that of Ehiakpor et al. (2016), who showed that large households are better able to perceive climate change. During the dry season, female farmers face deficits in fodder and concentrates to feed their herds and meet their families’ needs (Chingala et al. 2017). These results are consistent with those of Dugué et al. (2012), Kosmowski et al. (2016) and Uddin et al. (2017), who concluded that households whose livelihoods depend on the rainfed agriculture are more likely to detect changes at the start of the season than changes in rainfall distribution and the frequency of droughts. Women in contact with extension agents perceive less climate change. According to Ehiakpor et al. (2016), women in contact with extension agents are not oriented toward the problem of climate variability.

Women who own sheep perceive climate change more than those who own goats. Sheep prefer fodder more than goats (Jemaa et al. 2016). Drought affects forage production and, more broadly, food autonomy, weakening farm productivity (Béral et al. 2018). In the same vein, Dugué et al. (2012) assert that goats can gradually replace sheep, as they are less demanding in terms of fodder quality, make better use of pastures and tolerate heat better. Muslim female farmers perceive climate change more than Christian female farmers. Northern Benin is characterized by the Islamic religion, with 81% practitioners (De Souza 2014).

Conclusions

The small ruminant farmers in northern Benin are aware of the changes in their environment. For these farmers, climate change is manifested through disruptions in the rainy and dry seasons, characterized by a shift in the beginning and end of both seasons, a shortening of the rainy season, and a lengthening of the dry season. They have also noticed an increase in temperature along with instability in wind direction.

The results show that they are threatened by climate disruptions, particularly rainfall deficit, the early end of the rainy season, rising temperatures and violent winds. According to the breeders, phenomena related to rising temperatures are observed during the dry periods. As for violent winds, they believe these occur throughout the year, but are more frequent during the rainy season. These climatic changes make small ruminant farming highly vulnerable, leading to the scarcity of pastoral resources and the degradation of the health of their animals.

Data availability

The data that support this study will be shared upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of interests

The authors do not have any competing financial interests.

Declaration of funding

This work was funded by the International Foundation For Science (IFS) through grant I-3-S-6471-1 and by the Organization of Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) awarded to principal author Dimon Elodie.

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