Donkey production systems and breeding practices in selected districts of South Omo Zone, southern Ethiopia

Introduction

Materials and methods

Description of the study area

The study was conducted in the South Omo Zone of SNNP in southern Ethiopia (Fig. 1). Two districts, Dasenech and Hamer, were selected as they are the Omo donkey breeds’ distribution centre.

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area.

The South Omo Zone is one of the 13 administrative zones in SNNP and covers an area of 25 530 km² and is located at 4.430–6.46″N and 35.790–36.06″E, with an estimated human population of 472 977. The population density of the zone is 19 persons per square kilometer and it borders with Gamo Gofa Zone, Keffa Zone, Konta and Basketo Special Districts in the north, Kenya in the south, Konso and Derashe districts in the east, and Sudan and Bench Maji Zone in the west. The Zone is divided into eight districts and one city administration. Elevation generally ranges from 360 to 3500 masl. The traditional agroecology classification of the Zone is highland, midland, lowland, and semiarid, covering 0.5%, 5.1%, 60%, and 34.4% of the total area respectively. The rainfall pattern is bimodal, and mean annual rainfall ranges between 400 and 1600 mm. The mean annual temperature ranges between 10.1°C and 27°C (Alemayehu et al., 2016).

Dasenech district

Dasenech lies roughly between 4°37′N and 4°48′N and between 35°56′E and 36°20′E. Elevation varies between 353 and 606 masl. According to the district’s Agricultural and Natural Resource office, the climate is predominantly semiarid. The district has very low, erratic rainfall and high ambient temperatures. The rainfall pattern is bimodal, with a primary rainy season between March and May and a small secondary rain between September and December. The major livestock-rearing agro-pastoralists widely practice rain-fed flood runoff (nowadays very rarely), and irrigated agriculture, and grow predominantly sorghum, followed by maize and horticultural crops such as bananas.

Hamer district

Hamer district is located in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia, roughly at 5°09′60.00′N and 36°39′ 59.99′E. The district experiences a hot and dry climate, with precipitation mainly during a short rainy season from May to September. It is mainly composed of undulating hills and mountains, with elevations ranging from 890 to 2084 masl.

The district is located 650 km south of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital, and 130 km north of Jinka, the capital of the South Omo Zone. The Hamer ethnic group is pastoralist and agro-pastoralist, with many traditional practices.

The Hamer people are the largest indigenous group in the administrative district of the same name. Three other distinct ethnic groups also live in the Hamer District, namely, the Erborie, Kara, and Tsemay. The smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia is the kebele. Hamer district has 35 kebeles. Of these, the Hamer community has 26 kebeles (15 agro-pastoralists, 11 pastoralists), Erborie has four, Kara has three, and the Tsemay community owns the remaining two.

Results

Discussion

Designing and implementing a breeding program at the community level necessitates a detailed assessment of livestock farmers’ production goals and breeding practices (Abebe et al. 2020). Most households were headed by males. This aligns with Zewdu et al. (2013), where most livestock farmers were of old age, a common phenomenon in most developing countries. However, in this study, most donkey farmers were middle-aged, with 31–50-year-old farmers owning 79.4% and 76.2% in Hamer and Dasenech districts respectively. The proportion of female-headed households in the present study was higher than 1.9% for the Metekel and Assosa zones (Melak et al. 2020), suggesting men, whether in male-headed or female-headed households, are mostly responsible for donkey rearing, whereas women are responsible for crop cultivation and household chores. The average household family size was 7.18 (ranging from 2 to 15), which is higher than that in the report of the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) [Ethiopia] and ICF 2016, which was 4.8 persons, and smaller than that reported by Melak et al. (2020), which was 7.75 persons. Large family size was considered essential for donkey production activities. Larger families appear as an asset and security in times of retirement. The majority of the respondents had no formal education, an obstacle to understanding extension messages, and the importance of new technologies within a short time. Huffman (2020) noted that better-educated farmers are more likely to innovate and adopt new and profitable agricultural technologies. Herd structure is described in terms of the number and proportion of different age groups and sexes in the herd. The average number of donkeys in this study was higher than that of the Bamongu District in the northern region of Ghana reported as 3 ± 1.2 and 1 ± 0.13 for donkeys and adult jennets respectively, per household (Tuaruka and Agbolosu 2019). The focus group discussion showed that family heads provided donkeys for adult males on request and that most often, according to Burden’s (2012) assessment, adult males share ownership of and duty for donkey care and feeding.

Ownership patterns were usually related to decision-making in donkey buying and selling. Men over 18 years played the major decision-making role in donkey sales (93.2%), a finding in line with that of Mamo et al. (2017) in Gambella, western Ethiopia, who reported that men determined livestock transactions to service immediate household expenses. Men also performed most donkey-rearing activities except barn cleaning, which was mainly undertaken by women and young females. These results differ from those of Ghafar et al. (2020) in Pakistan who reported that more than three-quarters of livestock-related tasks (feeding, taking care of young and sick animals, milking, etc.) are the responsibility of women. For example, in India, the livestock industry is dominated by women, who provide more than half of the employed livestock farming labour, and perform approximately three-quarters of the work involved in livestock care, a consequence of several factors. First, women have traditionally been the primary caregivers for animals in India, because they are entrusted with the responsibility of caring for and maintaining animal health within households. This includes providing food and water, as well as cleaning stalls, grooming, and providing healthcare. In contrast, men are seen as primarily responsible for providing labour or money to pay for animal care. Additionally, women are the primary decision-makers in rural households, and this extends to the livestock industry in India. Women often have the authority to decide which animals to purchase and how much to invest in their care, and they are responsible for the sale and marketing of livestock products. Therefore, women are well-positioned to benefit from the profits of the livestock industry. Furthermore, the livestock industry in India is largely unregulated, leaving women with greater control over the industry and the prices they charge. Finally, women are more likely to be literate than their male counterparts and are more likely to be aware of the opportunities available in the livestock industry, such as improved animal husbandry and marketing techniques. These factors contribute to the dominance of women in India’s livestock industry. Furthermore, over 90% of people employed in dairying are women. Dudi et al. (2019) recorded that women perform the majority of the tasks associated with animal husbandry, such as gathering fodder, feeding, watering, caring for animals’ health, general management, making compost, milking, and adding value to the family level. Although women contribute significantly to the livestock industry, their work in raising animals has not received adequate recognition, and their share of income from livestock is viewed as being low. However, activities related to going outside the house are mainly managed by men. There is also a salary gap between the sexes. It is necessary to make efforts to eliminate gender prejudice, improve women’s ability to achieve their strategic needs, and carefully document their inputs and outcomes. Women in Ethiopia should be encouraged to participate in activities that expose them to the outside world, such as marketing, selling, and acquiring animals because they have limited access to technology, extension services, and women’s farmer organizations.

Donkeys were commonly used for packing, transport, and breeding, a result in line with those of Abebe et al. (2020) who reported that donkeys are mostly employed by farmers for social status, cart pulling, and draft power. As reported by Hu et al. (2020), donkeys are widely used for household breeding and transport, and large donkeys are useful for mule breeding. These could be possible opportunities for farmers to better utilize their indigenous donkeys. Female and male donkeys are maintained mainly for packing, followed by transport (Table 4). This saves money that the respondent would pay for transporting goods. Donkeys are a highly valued livestock species, next to goats, cattle, and sheep, and fulfill diverse socio-cultural needs. Donkeys provide cheap and easily accessible transport for goods in rural areas and are mostly employed to carry carts filled with agricultural goods from farm to home and marketplaces, and agriculture inputs to farms. Donkeys are also commonly used for breeding purposes. Their hardy nature, strong work ethic, and low maintenance requirements make them an ideal choice for those looking to have a dependable source of livestock. Donkeys have been known to be incredibly loyal to their owners, which has endeared them to many people around the world. Donkeys are also highly intelligent and can be trained to pull carts and even perform tricks. This makes them a valuable asset to many communities around the world. With their gentle disposition, donkeys are also a great choice for those looking for a companion animal. They can be very loving and affectionate towards people, and make great pets.

All in all, donkeys are an incredibly versatile and valuable asset to our lives, and their continued use in packing, transport, and breeding is a testament to their importance. They can endure hot environments (Tuaruka and Agbolosu 2019). Keeping donkeys for culture is limited compared with keeping them for packing and transporting, because of societal beliefs and through ignorance concerning donkeys for cultural usage.

Disease resistance was considered the most important trait, followed by pulling ability and drought tolerance, a finding in line with Gebeyehu et al. (2013), who found that farmers considered disease resistance the most important criterion, followed by walking ability, for selecting their breeding donkeys in Dire Dawa. Donkeys are known for their strong pulling ability owing to their stout stature and muscular build. This is beneficial to farmers because it can reduce the money spent on medical care, treatments, and vaccinations. It can also help preserve the quality of the animals because they can be more productive with a reduced chance of disease. Additionally, it can help keep the herd healthy, avoiding the spread of diseases to other animals and, potentially, to other farms. Disease resistance can also help increase animal longevity because animals will be less likely to succumb to diseases and other health problems. It is beneficial to farmers not only because it helps reduce costs, but it also helps increase overall herd productivity, improving profits. Identification of traits of economic importance is vital in the development of breeding objectives. In this regard, local donkey breeds are noted for their good disease resistance and pulling ability. This implies that the local donkeys can serve in transport to ease the lives of the farmers. Their disease resistance can enhance survival. Disease resistance of indigenous donkeys was higher in the Hamer district.

One crucial element of animal breeding is the choice of animal parents that will enhance the genetic quality of offspring (Xu et al. 2020). Small-scale farmers prioritized physical traits such as body size, disease resistance, growth performance, and coat colour when choosing breeding animals (Abebe et al. 2020). According to the findings of the current study, coat colour was not the deciding factor for which donkeys were chosen to produce offspring, perhaps because coat colour cannot be chosen or controlled. Additionally, coat colour does not indicate donkey health or temperament, making it difficult for farmers to make informed decisions about which donkeys to keep for breeding. Furthermore, coat colour does not indicate the quality of offspring, so farmers do not want to risk investing in a donkey with an unknown lineage or one that may not produce the desired traits in the offspring. Finally, coat colour is a largely aesthetic trait that has little bearing on the functionality of the donkey, so farmers prefer to choose donkeys on the basis of more practical criteria, such as body size, temperament, and conformation. A donkey’s body size has a big impact on the tasks for which it will be used because body size dictates how much weight it can carry, how quickly it can move, and how far it can travel. Smaller donkeys are often used to pull carts and carriages, transport goods and people, and as pack animals. Larger donkeys can be used to plow fields, pull farm machinery, and transport heavier loads. Smaller donkeys are also suitable for riding, being more agile and maneuverable than are larger breeds. In addition, body size affects lifespan, as larger donkeys tend to live longer than smaller breeds. Therefore, when selecting a donkey for a particular task, it is important to consider its body size, because this will determine its suitability for the job. Mekonnen et al. (2012) discovered that local farmers gave high marks to drought tolerance and milk production of livestock. Growth performance was recognized as one of the favoured features, although this variable did not obtain a high score in this study. Some farmers were more interested in the animal products such as meat and milk and they were also interested in the animals’ ability to move. Body size, growth performance, and disease resistance were essential traits in the study area.

The high ranking of growth performance as a selection criterion indicates that farmers who desire a higher financial return on labour and capital place a higher emphasis on aspects of economic importance. These findings are consistent with Maswana et al. (2022), who found that growth rate and body size were among the most important characteristics in choosing donkeys to be the parents of the next generation. In conventional situations where recording is not frequently practiced, growth performance provides an option for determining an animal’s capacity for rapid growth. The strong and steady growth of donkeys makes them an ideal choice for those requiring a reliable source of transportation or labour. Introducing a system for collecting data on farms could help with the impartial selection of the best animals. Data recording is essential for choosing breeding jacks for the community breeding program on the basis of performance records, as opposed to the current practice of using visual appraisal for growth performance and body size. Body size was important when choosing jacks. Particular colour patterns may be favoured by donkeys because of their cultural and biological benefits, although Etana et al. (2020) reported that culture and tradition were important in farmers’ preferred traits. The establishment of donkey markets and cultural shifts brought about by rural community modernization have enhanced the relevance of parameters such as growth rate and body weight relative to qualitative traits such as coat colour. In the traditional system, where coat colour was given more weight, animals with good breeding value may have been culled and a poor performer retained solely because of its colour. This may be advantageous when considering selection and culling criteria from an economic and production standpoint. When designing a community-based breeding program, it is essential to consider both the qualitative traits that farmers seek for non-economic reasons and the quantitative traits that affect production, so as to ensure the sustainability of the program.

The recorded age at first mating of female donkeys is greater than that recorded by Deng et al. (2020), and findings do not agree. The average age at first mating for female donkeys can differ for a variety of reasons. Where donkeys are used for work, such as for transportation or to pull carts, female donkeys may be bred at a younger age so as to produce foals that are strong enough to help with the work. Additionally, in some areas, donkeys are bred for meat, and the females may be bred at a younger age so as to produce foals that will be ready for earlier slaughter. In other areas, donkeys are bred as companion animals and female donkeys may be bred at an older age so as to ensure that the foals are mature enough to form a bond with their owners. Additionally, the availability of suitable mates can play a role, because it can be difficult for a female donkey to find a mate in areas with a limited number of males. Finally, some owners may wait to breed their female donkeys until they reach a certain age, because this may increase the chance of a successful pregnancy. The varying environmental conditions (temperature and nutrition) in the study districts may be the cause of the variance in age at first mating.

The lack of water was the first constraint for donkey production because of the limited availability of natural water sources. The area experiences frequent droughts, whereas the majority of the region is covered by grassland and shrubland, being unsuitable for crops. The lack of infrastructure in the region also makes it difficult to access water from other sources, such as rivers and ponds, which further exacerbates the water scarcity issue. As a result, the donkeys living in the study area are unable to access enough water to sustain them and are limited in their growth and production.

Different livestock diseases ranked second in the list of factors affecting livestock production, a consequence of the impact on animal health and productivity, farm profitability, and farmer livelihoods. Livestock diseases can spread quickly within a herd, and diseases can spread to humans and cause serious public health concerns, such as zoonotic diseases. Livestock diseases can also contaminate water sources and affect biodiversity. Measures to prevent, control, and manage livestock diseases, such as regular vaccinations, biosecurity protocols, adequate nutrition, and proper hygiene are important and can help minimize negative effects, ensuring agricultural production is not affected and farmers can continue to have a successful and sustainable livelihood.

Feed shortage is a serious problem, and is ranked third. It is a major cause of animal malnutrition and death and is causing economic losses for farmers and other stakeholders. A combination of factors such as drought, floods, and other extreme weather conditions, overgrazing, deforestation, and land degradation usually causes feed shortage. Overgrazing can reduce the nutritional value of feed and lead to soil erosion, which can make it difficult for animals to find nutritious food. Deforestation and land degradation can also reduce feed availability and reduce the grazing land area. These factors can lead to feed shortages, resulting in poor animal health and nutrition, and a consequent economic loss (Lal 2015).

Extension services are limited by a lack of resources and personnel, and farmers lack access to relevant information on the latest livestock farming techniques. Extension services are not adequately tailored to the needs of local farmers or adequately funded, limiting their effectiveness, and limiting farmer access to credit, necessary for investing in livestock production.

The lack of drugs is a further constraint, and creates a barrier for effective animal management and protection from diseases, and hampers livestock farmers’ production because they are unable to provide the necessary treatment to their animals to boost productivity. The lack of drugs also affects the quality of the products the farmers produce. Consequently, farmers’ income is negatively affected because low-quality products fetch lower market prices.

Conclusions

These findings, prerequisites for creating breeding programs, give an insight into the major production-trait preferences, selection criteria, and major constraints. Indigenous donkey breeds are important because of their adaptability under low-input and extensive production environments where disease is the major constraint. The donkey is a highly valued animal by the southern people, next to cattle and goats, reared to fulfill diverse socio-cultural needs. Donkeys support food security at the household level by creating an enabling economic environment that enables farmers to have better purchasing power or better access to purchase food, and provides financial support for education of children. Pulling ability and disease resistance were given high priority in the trait preferences. The majority of the respondents have not accessed regular vaccination programs and proper prevention mechanisms for their donkeys.

Recommendations

Effective extension services are needed to persuade farmers and pique their interest in the advantages of superior genotypes, or potential incentives for those who select their best males for breeding. Because of the small number of donkeys, reasonable genetic gain necessitates the creation of breeders’ organizations or cooperatives, which in turn necessitates the full engagement and longer-term commitment of donkey keepers and other actors involved in livestock development. A concomitant improvement in non-genetic elements (disease and feed) is crucial to maximizing the benefits of breeding operations. The government and the concerned organizations should focus on the main constraints to reduce donkey loss.

When developing and putting into practice community-based breeding programs in South Omo, it is necessary to take into account breeding practices and trait preferences.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [Awoke Melak], upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Declaration of funding

This research did not receive any specific funding.

Author contributions

Awoke Melak drafted and organised the paper, while Teklewold Belayhun participated in data collection, coordination, and data entry. Abebe Hailu and Ashenafi Getachew participated in data collection and coordination. All authors read and approved the final paper.