The perils of poly- and perfluorinated chemicals on the reproductive health of humans, livestock, and wildlife

Mark P. Green; Cameron Shearer; Rebecca Patrick; Shervin Kabiri; Nicola Rivers; Brett Nixon

doi:10.1071/RD24034

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Next Contents Vol 36(9)

The perils of poly- and perfluorinated chemicals on the reproductive health of humans, livestock, and wildlife

Mark P. Green ^A , Cameron Shearer ^B , Rebecca Patrick ^C , Shervin Kabiri ^D , Nicola Rivers

^E and Brett Nixon

^F ^G ^*

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A School of BioSciences, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

^B Department of Chemistry, School of Physics, Chemistry and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Engineering and Technology, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.

^C School of Health and Social Development, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Vic. 3220, Australia.

^D School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, Faculty of Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia.

^E Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3168, Australia.

^F Hunter Medical Research Institute Research Program in Infertility and Reproduction, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia.

^G School of Environmental and Life Sciences, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: brett.nixon@newcastle.edu.au

Handling Editor: Graeme Martin

Reproduction, Fertility and Development 36, RD24034 https://doi.org/10.1071/RD24034

Submitted: 4 March 2024 Accepted: 10 April 2024 Published online: 15 May 2024

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a prominent class of persistent synthetic compound. The widespread use of these substances in various industrial applications has resulted in their pervasive contamination on a global scale. It is therefore concerning that PFAS have a propensity to accumulate in bodily tissues whereupon they have been linked with a range of adverse health outcomes. Despite this, the true extent of the risk posed by PFAS to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife remains unclear. Addressing these questions requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining the fields of chemistry, biology, and policy to enable meaningful investigation and develop innovative remediation strategies. This article combines the perspectives of chemists, soil scientists, reproductive biologists, and health policy researchers, to contextualise the issue of PFAS contamination and its specific impact on reproductive health. The purpose of this article is to describe the challenges associated with remediating PFAS-contaminated soils and waters and explore the consequences of PFAS contamination on health and reproduction. Furthermore, current actions to promote planetary health and protect ecosystems are presented to instigate positive social change among the scientific community.

Keywords: emerging contaminants, human health, livestock, persistent synthetic compounds, planetary health, poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), remediation, reproduction, reproductive health, wildlife.

References

Ahrens L (2011) Polyfluoroalkyl compounds in the aquatic environment: a review of their occurrence and fate. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 13, 20-31.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Andrews DQ, Naidenko OV (2020) Population-wide exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from drinking water in the United States. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 931-936.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

APCO (2023) Action plan to phase out PFAS in fibre-based food contact packaging. Australian Packaging Covenant Organisation, Sydney, Australia. Available at https://documents.packagingcovenant.org.au/public-documents/Action%20Plan%20to%20Phase%20Out%20PFAS%20in%20Fibre-Based%20Food%20Contact%20Packaging [Accessed February 2024]

Armitage JM, MacLeod M, Cousins IT (2009a) Modeling the global fate and transport of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanoate (PFO) emitted from direct sources using a multispecies mass balance model. Environmental Science & Technology 43, 1134-1140.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Armitage JM, Schenker U, Scheringer M, Martin JW, MacLeod M, Cousins IT (2009b) Modeling the global fate and transport of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and precursor compounds in relation to temporal trends in wildlife exposure. Environmental Science & Technology 43, 9274-9280.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Aulsebrook LC, Bertram MG, Martin JM, Aulsebrook AE, Brodin T, Evans JP, Hall MD, O’Bryan MK, Pask AJ, Tyler CR, Wong BBM (2020) Reproduction in a polluted world: implications for wildlife. Reproduction 160, R13-R23.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Australian Associated Press (2023) Australian government reaches $132.7m class action settlement with landowners over PFAS contamination. The Guardian Sydney, NSW, Australia. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/15/australian-government-reaches-1327m-class-action-settlement-with-landowners-over-pfas-contamination [Accessed February 2024].
| Google Scholar |

Bangma J, Guillette TC, Bommarito PA, Ng C, Reiner JL, Lindstrom AB, Strynar MJ (2022) Understanding the dynamics of physiological changes, protein expression, and PFAS in wildlife. Environment International 159, 107037.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Banwell C, Housen T, Smurthwaite K, Trevenar S, Walker L, Todd K, Rosas M, Kirk M (2021) Health and social concerns about living in three communities affected by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): a qualitative study in Australia. PLoS ONE 16, e0245141.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Bao J, Yu W-J, Liu Y, Wang X, Jin Y-H, Dong G-H (2019) Perfluoroalkyl substances in groundwater and home-produced vegetables and eggs around a fluorochemical industrial park in China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 171, 199-205.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Bolan N, Sarkar B, Yan Y, Li Q, Wijesekara H, Kannan K, Tsang DCW, Schauerte M, Bosch J, Noll H, Ok YS, Scheckel K, Kumpiene J, Gobindlal K, Kah M, Sperry J, Kirkham MB, Wang H, Tsang YF, Hou D, Rinklebe J (2021) Remediation of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contaminated soils – to mobilize or to immobilize or to degrade? Journal of Hazardous Materials 401, 123892.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Brown JB, Conder JM, Arblaster JA, Higgins CP (2020) Assessing human health risks from per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-impacted vegetable consumption: a tiered modeling approach. Environmental Science & Technology 54, 15202-15214.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Brusseau ML, Anderson RH, Guo B (2020) PFAS concentrations in soils: background levels versus contaminated sites. Science of The Total Environment 740, 140017.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Buck RC, Franklin J, Berger U, Conder JM, Cousins IT, de Voogt P, Jensen AA, Kannan K, Mabury SA, van Leeuwen SPJ (2011) Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 7, 513-541.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Calafat AM, Wong L-Y, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Needham LL (2007) Polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the U.S. population: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 and comparisons with NHANES 1999-2000. Environmental Health Perspectives 115, 1596-1602.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Calvert L, Green MP, De Iuliis GN, Dun MD, Turner BD, Clarke BO, Eamens AL, Roman SD, Nixon B (2021) Assessment of the emerging threat posed by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances to male reproduction in humans. Frontiers in Endocrinology 12, 799043.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chen Y, Zhou L, Xu J, Zhang L, Li M, Xie X, Xie Y, Luo D, Zhang D, Yu X, Yang B, Kuang H (2017) Maternal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid inhibits luteal function via oxidative stress and apoptosis in pregnant mice. Reproductive Toxicology 69, 159-166.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Chow SJ, Ojeda N, Jacangelo JG, Schwab KJ (2021) Detection of ultrashort-chain and other per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in U.S. bottled water. Water Research 201, 117292.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Climate and Health Alliance (2021) Healthy, regenerative and just: framework for a national strategy on climate, health and well-being for Australia. (CAHA: Melbourne, Australia) Available at https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/caha/pages/1947/attachments/original/1639623234/caha-framework-2.0-FA.pdf?1639623234 [Accessed February 2024]

Costa G, Sartori S, Consonni D (2009) Thirty years of medical surveillance in perfluooctanoic acid production workers. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine 51, 364-372.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

CRC CARE (2018) Practitioner guide to risk-based assessment, remediation and management of PFAS site contamination. CRC CARE Technical Report no. 43. (CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment, Newcastle University: Newcastle, Australia) Available at https://www.remediationframework.com.au/national-remediation-framework/toolbox/pfas/30-practitioner-guide-assessment-management-and-remediation-of-pfas/file [Accessed February 2024]

CSIRO (2023) Tackling plastic waste. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Available at https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/recycling/Plastics [Accessed February 2024]

Cui Q, Pan Y, Wang J, Liu H, Yao B, Dai J (2020) Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in serum versus semen and their association with male reproductive hormones. Environmental Pollution 266, 115330.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

De Silva AO, Armitage JM, Bruton TA, Dassuncao C, Heiger-Bernays W, Hu XC, Karrman A, Kelly B, Ng C, Robuck A, Sun M, Webster TF, Sunderland EM (2021) PFAS exposure pathways for humans and wildlife: a synthesis of current knowledge and key gaps in understanding. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 40, 631-657.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

de Vries FT, Wallenstein MD (2017) Below-ground connections underlying above-ground food production: a framework for optimising ecological connections in the rhizosphere. Journal of Ecology 105, 913-920.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Death C, Bell C, Champness D, Milne C, Reichman S, Hagen T (2021) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in livestock and game species: a review. Science of The Total Environment 774, 144795.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) (2023) Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Australian Government, Canberra, Australia. Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/chemicals-management/pfas [Accessed February 2024]

Dietz R, Letcher RJ, Desforges J-P, Eulaers I, Sonne C, Wilson S, Andersen-Ranberg E, Basu N, Barst BD, Bustnes JO, Bytingsvik J, Ciesielski TM, Drevnick PE, Gabrielsen GW, Haarr A, Hylland K, Jenssen BM, Levin M, McKinney MA, Nørregaard RD, Pedersen KE, Provencher J, Styrishave B, Tartu S, Aars J, Ackerman JT, Rosing-Asvid A, Barrett R, Bignert A, Born EW, Branigan M, Braune B, Bryan CE, Dam M, Eagles-Smith CA, Evans M, Evans TJ, Fisk AT, Gamberg M, Gustavson K, Hartman CA, Helander B, Herzog MP, Hoekstra PF, Houde M, Hoydal K, Jackson AK, Kucklick J, Lie E, Loseto L, Mallory ML, Miljeteig C, Mosbech A, Muir DCG, Nielsen ST, Peacock E, Pedro S, Peterson SH, Polder A, Rigét FF, Roach P, Saunes H, Sinding M-HS, Skaare JU, Søndergaard J, Stenson G, Stern G, Treu G, Schuur SS, Víkingsson G (2019) Current state of knowledge on biological effects from contaminants on arctic wildlife and fish. Science of The Total Environment 696, 133792.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Drew R, Hagen TG, Champness D (2021) Accumulation of PFAS by livestock – determination of transfer factors from water to serum for cattle and sheep in Australia. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 38, 1897-1913.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (EFSA CONTAM), Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, Del Mazo J, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Leblanc J-C, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Barregard L, Ceccatelli S, Cravedi J-P, Halldorsson TI, Haug LS, Johansson N, Knutsen HK, Rose M, Roudot A-C, Van Loveren H, Vollmer G, Mackay K, Riolo F, Schwerdtle T (2020) Risk to human health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in food. EFSA Journal 18, e06223.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2022) Plastics and the circular economy – deep dive. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Isle of Wight, UK. Available at https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/plastics-and-the-circular-economy-deep-dive [Accessed February 2024]

European Environment Agency – Emerging chemical risks in Europe – ‘PFAS’ (2019) Briefing no. 12/2019. doi:10.2800/48621. Available at https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/emerging-chemical-risks-in-europe/emerging-chemical-risks-in-europe

Friedman L, Giang V (2023) 3M reaches $10.3 billion settlement in ‘forever chemicals’ suits. The New York Times New York, USA. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/22/business/3m-settlement-forever-chemicals-lawsuit.html [Accessed February 2024].
| Google Scholar |

Frisbee SJ, Brooks AP, Jr, Maher A, Flensborg P, Arnold S, Fletcher T, Steenland K, Shankar A, Knox SS, Pollard C, Halverson JA, Vieira VM, Jin C, Leyden KM, Ducatman AM (2009) The C8 health project: design, methods, and participants. Environmental Health Perspectives 117, 1873-1882.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gebbink WA, Letcher RJ (2012) Comparative tissue and body compartment accumulation and maternal transfer to eggs of perfluoroalkyl sulfonates and carboxylates in Great Lakes herring gulls. Environmental Pollution 162, 40-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Giesy JP, Kannan K (2001) Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environmental Science & Technology 35, 1339-1342.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gonzalez-Gaya B, Dachs J, Roscales JL, Caballero G, Jimenez B (2014) Perfluoroalkylated substances in the global tropical and subtropical surface oceans. Environmental Science & Technology 48, 13076-13084.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Governini L, Guerranti C, De Leo V, Boschi L, Luddi A, Gori M, Orvieto R, Piomboni P (2015) Chromosomal aneuploidies and DNA fragmentation of human spermatozoa from patients exposed to perfluorinated compounds. Andrologia 47, 1012-1019.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gronnestad R, Villanger GD, Polder A, Kovacs KM, Lydersen C, Jenssen BM, Borga K (2017) Maternal transfer of perfluoroalkyl substances in hooded seals. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 36, 763-770.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gunasiri H, Wang Y, Watkins EM, Capetola T, Henderson-Wilson C, Patrick R (2022) Hope, coping and eco-anxiety: young people’s mental health in a climate-impacted Australia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, 5528.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Guruge KS, Manage PM, Yamanaka N, Miyazaki S, Taniyasu S, Yamashita N (2008) Species-specific concentrations of perfluoroalkyl contaminants in farm and pet animals in Japan. Chemosphere 73, S210-S215.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Haimbaugh A, Wu C-C, Akemann C, Meyer DN, Connell M, Abdi M, Khalaf A, Johnson D, Baker TR (2022) Multi- and transgenerational effects of developmental exposure to environmental levels of PFAS and PFAS mixture in Zebrafish (Danio rerio). Toxics 10, 334.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hansen KJ, Clemen LA, Ellefson ME, Johnson HO (2001) Compound-specific, quantitative characterization of organic fluorochemicals in biological matrices. Environmental Science & Technology 35, 766-770.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

HEPA (2020) PFAS National Environmental Management Plan (PFAS NEMP), Version 2.0. Heads of Environmental Protection Agencies Australia and New Zealand, Canberra, Australia. Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/pfas-nemp-2.pdf [Accessed February 2024]

Hepburn E, Madden C, Szabo D, Coggan TL, Clarke B, Currell M (2019) Contamination of groundwater with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from legacy landfills in an urban re-development precinct. Environmental Pollution 248, 101-113.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Herzke D, Huber S, Bervoets L, D’Hollander W, Hajslova J, Pulkrabova J, Brambilla G, De Filippis SP, Klenow S, Heinemeyer G, de Voogt P (2013) Perfluorinated alkylated substances in vegetables collected in four European countries; occurrence and human exposure estimations. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 20, 7930-7939.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Hobson KA, Welch HE (1992) Determination of trophic relationships within a high Arctic marine food web using δ13C and δ15N analysis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 84, 9-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Houde M, Martin JW, Letcher RJ, Solomon KR, Muir DCG (2006) Biological monitoring of polyfluoroalkyl substances: a review. Environmental Science & Technology 40, 3463-3473.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Houde M, De Silva AO, Muir DCG, Letcher RJ (2011) Monitoring of perfluorinated compounds in aquatic biota: an updated review. Environmental Science & Technology 45, 7962-7973.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

IARC (2023) Evaluate the carcinogenicity of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). IARC Monographs. International Agency for Resesearch on Cancer, Lyon, France. Available at https://www.iarc.who.int/news-events/iarc-monographs-evaluate-the-carcinogenicity-of-perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-and-perfluorooctanesulfonic-acid-pfos/ [Accessed February 2024]

Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) (2023) Environmental fate and transport for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. PFAS Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document and Fact Sheets. Washington, DC, USA. Available at https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/ [Accessed February 2024]

Ishibashi H, Iwata H, Kim E-Y, Tao L, Kannan K, Tanabe S, Batoev VB, Petrov EA (2008) Contamination and effects of perfluorochemicals in Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica). 2. Molecular characterization, expression level, and transcriptional activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 2302-2308.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Jensen AA, Leffers H (2008) Emerging endocrine disrupters: perfluoroalkylated substances. International Journal of Andrology 31, 161-169.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Jha G, Kankarla V, McLennon E, Pal S, Sihi D, Dari B, Diaz D, Nocco M (2021) Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in integrated crop-livestock systems: environmental exposure and human health risks. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, 12550.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Jian J-M, Chen D, Han F-J, Guo Y, Zeng L, Lu X, Wang F (2018) A short review on human exposure to and tissue distribution of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Science of The Total Environment 636, 1058-1069.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Joensen UN, Bossi R, Leffers H, Jensen AA, Skakkebaek NE, Jorgensen N (2009) Do perfluoroalkyl compounds impair human semen quality? Environmental Health Perspectives 117, 923-927.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kabiri S, Tucker W, Navarro DA, Braunig J, Thompson K, Knight ER, Nguyen TMH, Grimison C, Barnes CM, Higgins CP, Mueller JF, Kookana RS, McLaughlin MJ (2022) Comparing the leaching behavior of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from contaminated soils using static and column leaching tests. Environmental Science & Technology 56, 368-378.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kannan K, Tao L, Sinclair E, Pastva SD, Jude DJ, Giesy JP (2005) Perfluorinated compounds in aquatic organisms at various trophic levels in a Great Lakes food chain. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 48, 559-566.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kannan K, Perrotta E, Thomas NJ (2006) Association between perfluorinated compounds and pathological conditions in southern sea otters. Environmental Science & Technology 40, 4943-4948.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kato H, Fujii S, Takahashi M, Matsumoto M, Hirata-Koizumi M, Ono A, Hirose A (2015) Repeated dose and reproductive/developmental toxicity of perfluorododecanoic acid in rats. Environmental Toxicology 30, 1244-1263.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kelly BC, Ikonomou MG, Blair JD, Surridge B, Hoover D, Grace R, Gobas FAPC (2009) Perfluoroalkyl contaminants in an Arctic marine food web: trophic magnification and wildlife exposure. Environmental Science & Technology 43, 4037-4043.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kirk M, Smurthwaite K, Bräunig J, Trevenar S, D’Este C, Lucas R, Lal A, Korda R, Clements A, Mueller J, Armstrong B (2018) The PFAS health study: systematic literature review. pp. 1–256. (The Australian National University: Canberra, Australia). Available at https://nceph.anu.edu.au/files/PFAS%20Health%20Study%20Systematic%20Review_1.pdf

Kissa E (2001) ‘Fluorinated surfactants and repellents.’ 2nd edn. (Marcel Dekker, Inc: New York, USA)

Kurwadkar S, Dane J, Kanel SR, Nadagouda MN, Cawdrey RW, Ambade B, Struckhoff GC, Wilkin R (2022) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: a critical review of their global occurrence and distribution. Science of The Total Environment 809, 151003.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Landrigan PJ, Raps H, Cropper M, Bald C, Brunner M, Canonizado EM, Charles D, Chiles TC, Donohue MJ, Enck J, Fenichel P, Fleming LE, Ferrier-Pages C, Fordham R, Gozt A, Griffin C, Hahn ME, Haryanto B, Hixson R, Ianelli H, James BD, Kumar P, Laborde A, Law KL, Martin K, Mu J, Mulders Y, Mustapha A, Niu J, Pahl S, Park Y, Pedrotti ML, Pitt JA, Ruchirawat M, Seewoo BJ, Spring M, Stegeman JJ, Suk W, Symeonides C, Takada H, Thompson RC, Vicini A, Wang Z, Whitman E, Wirth D, Wolff M, Yousuf AK, Dunlop S (2023) The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on plastics and human health. Annals of Global Health 89, 23.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Lein MR (1972) A trophic comparison of avifaunas. Systematic Biology 21, 135-150.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lenka SP, Kah M, Padhye LP (2021) A review of the occurrence, transformation, and removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in wastewater treatment plants. Water Research 199, 117187.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Letcher RJ, Bustnes JO, Dietz R, Jenssen BM, Jorgensen EH, Sonne C, Verreault J, Vijayan MM, Gabrielsen GW (2010) Exposure and effects assessment of persistent organohalogen contaminants in arctic wildlife and fish. Science of The Total Environment 408, 2995-3043.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Li Y, Oliver DP, Kookana RS (2018) A critical analysis of published data to discern the role of soil and sediment properties in determining sorption of per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Science of The Total Environment 628–629, 110-120.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Li P, Oyang X, Zhao Y, Tu T, Tian X, Li L, Zhao Y, Li J, Xiao Z (2019) Occurrence of perfluorinated compounds in agricultural environment, vegetables, and fruits in regions influenced by a fluorine-chemical industrial park in China. Chemosphere 225, 659-667.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Lindstrom AB, Strynar MJ, Libelo EL (2011) Polyfluorinated compounds: past, present, and future. Environmental Science & Technology 45, 7954-7961.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Lopez-Antia A, Groffen T, Lasters R, AbdElgawad H, Sun J, Asard H, Bervoets L, Eens M (2019) Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) concentrations and oxidative status in two generations of great tits inhabiting a contamination hotspot. Environmental Science & Technology 53, 1617-1626.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Louis GMB, Chen Z, Schisterman EF, Kim S, Sweeney AM, Sundaram R, Lynch CD, Gore-Langton RE, Barr DB (2015) Perfluorochemicals and human semen quality: the LIFE study. Environmental Health Perspectives 123, 57-63.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Ma D, Lu Y, Liang Y, Ruan T, Li J, Zhao C, Wang Y, Jiang G (2022) A critical review on transplacental transfer of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: prenatal exposure levels, characteristics, and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology 56, 6014-6026.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Martin JW, Smithwick MM, Braune BM, Hoekstra PF, Muir DCG, Mabury SA (2004) Identification of long-chain perfluorinated acids in biota from the Canadian Arctic. Environmental Science & Technology 38, 373-380.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

McIver SC, Roman SD, Nixon B, Loveland KL, McLaughlin EA (2013) The rise of testicular germ cell tumours: the search for causes, risk factors and novel therapeutic targets. F1000Research 2, 55.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Mikkonen AT, Martin J, Upton RN, Barker AO, Brumley CM, Taylor MP, Mackenzie L, Roberts MS (2023) Spatio-temporal trends in livestock exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) inform risk assessment and management measures. Environmental Research 225, 115518.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Moody CA, Field JA (1999) Determination of perfluorocarboxylates in groundwater impacted by fire-fighting activity. Environmental Science & Technology 33, 2800-2806.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Muir D, Bossi R, Carlsson P, Evans M, De Silva A, Halsall C, Rauert C, Herzke D, Hung H, Letcher R, Rigét F, Roos A (2019) Levels and trends of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in the Arctic environment – an update. Emerging Contaminants 5, 240-271.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Newsted JL, Coady KK, Beach SA, Butenhoff JL, Gallagher S, Giesy JP (2007) Effects of perfluorooctane sulfonate on mallard and northern bobwhite quail exposed chronically via the diet. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 23, 1-9.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Nickerson A, Maizel AC, Kulkarni PR, Adamson DT, Kornuc JJ, Higgins CP (2020) Enhanced extraction of AFFF-associated PFASs from source zone soils. Environmental Science & Technology 54, 4952-4962.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Noorlander CW, van Leeuwen SPJ, Te Biesebeek JD, Mengelers MJB, Zeilmaker MJ (2011) Levels of perfluorinated compounds in food and dietary intake of PFOS and PFOA in the Netherlands. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59, 7496-7505.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Obsekov V, Kahn LG, Trasande L (2023) Leveraging systematic reviews to explore disease burden and costs of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance exposures in the United States. Exposure and Health 15, 373-394.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Olsen GW, Zobel LR (2007) Assessment of lipid, hepatic, and thyroid parameters with serum perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) concentrations in fluorochemical production workers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 81, 231-246.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Olsen GW, Gilliland FD, Burlew MM, Burris JM, Mandel JS, Mandel JH (1998) An epidemiologic investigation of reproductive hormones in men with occupational exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine 40, 614-622.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Patrick R, Noy S, Henderson-Wilson C, Hayward J, Allender S, Gunasiri H, Bruges N, Snell T, Capetola T (2023a) Minding our futures: understanding climate-related mental wellbeing using systems science. Health & Place 84, 103134.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Patrick R, Snell T, Gunasiri H, Garad R, Meadows G, Enticott J (2023b) Prevalence and determinants of mental health related to climate change in Australia. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 57, 710-724.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Perez F, Nadal M, Navarro-Ortega A, Fabrega F, Domingo JL, Barcelo D, Farre M (2013) Accumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human tissues. Environment International 59, 354-362.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Persson L, Carney Almroth BM, Collins CD, Cornell S, de Wit CA, Diamond ML, Fantke P, Hassellov M, MacLeod M, Ryberg MW, Sogaard Jorgensen P, Villarrubia-Gomez P, Wang Z, Hauschild MZ (2022) Outside the safe operating space of the planetary boundary for novel entities. Environmental Science & Technology 56, 1510-1521.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Rand AA, Mabury SA (2017) Is there a human health risk associated with indirect exposure to perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs)? Toxicology 375, 28-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Robuck AR, Cantwell MG, McCord JP, Addison LM, Pfohl M, Strynar MJ, McKinney R, Katz DR, Wiley DN, Lohmann R (2020) Legacy and novel per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in juvenile seabirds from the U.S. atlantic coast. Environmental Science & Technology 54, 12938-12948.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Rockstrom J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson A, Chapin FS, III, Lambin EF, Lenton TM, Scheffer M, Folke C, Schellnhuber HJ, Nykvist B, de Wit CA, Hughes T, van der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sorlin S, Snyder PK, Costanza R, Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, Corell RW, Fabry VJ, Hansen J, Walker B, Liverman D, Richardson K, Crutzen P, Foley JA (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461, 472-475.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Ross I, McDonough J, Miles J, Storch P, Thelakkat Kochunarayanan P, Kalve E, Hurst J, Dasgupta SS, Burdick J (2018) A review of emerging technologies for remediation of PFASs. Remediation Journal 28, 101-126.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sakr CJ, Kreckmann KH, Green JW, Gillies PJ, Reynolds JL, Leonard RC (2007a) Cross-sectional study of lipids and liver enzymes related to a serum biomarker of exposure (ammonium perfluorooctanoate or APFO) as part of a general health survey in a cohort of occupationally exposed workers. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine 49, 1086-1096.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Sakr CJ, Leonard RC, Kreckmann KH, Slade MD, Cullen MR (2007b) Longitudinal study of serum lipids and liver enzymes in workers with occupational exposure to ammonium perfluorooctanoate. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine 49, 872-879.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Schneider-Mayerson M, Leong KL (2020) Eco-reproductive concerns in the age of climate change. Climatic Change 163, 1007-1023.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks (SCHEER) (2018) Statement on emerging health and environmental issues (2018). DG Health and Food Safety, European Commission, Luxembourg. Available at https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2019-02/scheer_s_002_0.pdf [Accessed February 2024]

Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Jorgensen N, Main KM, Leffers H, Andersson A-M, Juul A, Jensen TK, Toppari J (2007) Testicular cancer trends as ‘whistle blowers’ of testicular developmental problems in populations. International Journal of Andrology 30, 198-205.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Smithwick M, Norstrom RJ, Mabury SA, Solomon K, Evans TJ, Stirling I, Taylor MK, Muir DCG (2006) Temporal trends of perfluoroalkyl contaminants in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from two locations in the North American Arctic, 1972-2002. Environmental Science & Technology 40, 1139-1143.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Song X, Tang S, Zhu H, Chen Z, Zang Z, Zhang Y, Niu X, Wang X, Yin H, Zeng F, He C (2018) Biomonitoring PFAAs in blood and semen samples: investigation of a potential link between PFAAs exposure and semen mobility in China. Environment International 113, 50-54.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Steenland K, Fletcher T, Stein CR, Bartell SM, Darrow L, Lopez-Espinosa M-J, Barry Ryan P, Savitz DA (2020) Review: evolution of evidence on PFOA and health following the assessments of the C8 Science Panel. Environment International 145, 106125.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Steffen W, Richardson K, Rockstrom J, Cornell SE, Fetzer I, Bennett EM, Biggs R, Carpenter SR, de Vries W, de Wit CA, Folke C, Gerten D, Heinke J, Mace GM, Persson LM, Ramanathan V, Reyers B, Sorlin S (2015) Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347, 1259855.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Stemmler I, Lammel G (2010) Pathways of PFOA to the Arctic: variabilities and contributions of oceanic currents and atmospheric transport and chemistry sources. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 9965-9980.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stockholm Convention (2023) Protecting human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants. United Nations Environmental Programme, Geneva, Switzerland. Available at https://chm.pops.int/Implementation/IndustrialPOPs/PFAS/Overview/tabid/5221/Default.aspx [Accessed February 2024]

Strynar MJ, Lindstrom AB, Nakayama SF, Egeghy PP, Helfant LJ (2012) Pilot scale application of a method for the analysis of perfluorinated compounds in surface soils. Chemosphere 86, 252-257.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Sunderland EM, Hu XC, Dassuncao C, Tokranov AK, Wagner CC, Allen JG (2019) A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 29, 131-147.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Swedish EPA (2018) Guidance on risk assessment and remediation of PFAS pollution (in Swedish). Draft Version. Swedish EPA, Stockholm, Sweden.

Szabo D, Coggan TL, Robson TC, Currell M, Clarke BO (2018) Investigating recycled water use as a diffuse source of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) to groundwater in Melbourne, Australia. Science of The Total Environment 644, 1409-1417.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Szabo D, Marchiandi J, Samandra S, Johnston JM, Mulder RA, Green MP, Clarke BO (2023) High-resolution temporal wastewater treatment plant investigation to understand influent mass flux of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Journal of Hazardous Materials 447, 130854.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Tartu S, Gabrielsen GW, Blevin P, Ellis H, Bustnes JO, Herzke D, Chastel O (2014) Endocrine and fitness correlates of long-chain perfluorinated carboxylates exposure in Arctic breeding black-legged kittiwakes. Environmental Science & Technology 48, 13504-13510.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Turner BD, Sloan SW, Currell GR (2019) Novel remediation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from contaminated groundwater using Cannabis Sativa L. (hemp) protein powder. Chemosphere 229, 22-31.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2021) EPA advances science to protect the public from PFOA and PFOS in drinking water. EPA Press Office, Washington DC, USA. Available at https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-advances-science-protect-public-pfoa-and-pfos-drinking-water [Accessed February 2024]

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2022) Technical fact sheet: drinking water health advisories for four PFAS (PFOA, PFOS, GenX chemicals, and PFBS). EPA Press Office, Washington, DC, USA. Available at https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-06/technical-factsheet-four-PFAS.pdf [Accessed February 2024]

Vendl C, Taylor MD, Braunig J, Gibson MJ, Hesselson D, Neely GG, Lagisz M, Nakagawa S (2021) Profiling research on PFAS in wildlife: protocol of a systematic evidence map and bibliometric analysis. Ecological Solutions and Evidence 2, e12106.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vested A, Ramlau-Hansen CH, Olsen SF, Bonde JP, Kristensen SL, Halldorsson TI, Becher G, Haug LS, Ernst EH, Toft G (2013) Associations of in utero exposure to perfluorinated alkyl acids with human semen quality and reproductive hormones in adult men. Environmental Health Perspectives 121, 453-458.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Wang Z, DeWitt J, Higgins CP, Cousins IT (2018) Correction to “a never-ending story of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)?”. Environmental Science & Technology 52, 3325.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Weiß O, Wiesmuller GA, Bunte A, Goen T, Schmidt CK, Wilhelm M, Holzer J (2012) Perfluorinated compounds in the vicinity of a fire training area – human biomonitoring among 10 persons drinking water from contaminated private wells in Cologne, Germany. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 215, 212-215.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

WHO (2018) Circular economy and health: opportunities and risks. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. Available at https://www.medbox.org/document/circular-economy-and-health-opportunities-and-risks#GO [Accessed February 2024]

Xing Y, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Lin X, Li J, Liu P, Lee HK, Huang Z (2023) The sources and bioaccumulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in animal-derived foods and the potential risk of dietary intake. Science of The Total Environment 905, 167313.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yamashita N, Kannan K, Taniyasu S, Horii Y, Petrick G, Gamo T (2005) A global survey of perfluorinated acids in oceans. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51, 658-668.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yamashita N, Taniyasu S, Petrick G, Wei S, Gamo T, Lam PKS, Kannan K (2008) Perfluorinated acids as novel chemical tracers of global circulation of ocean waters. Chemosphere 70, 1247-1255.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Ye X, Kato K, Wong L-Y, Jia T, Kalathil A, Latremouille J, Calafat AM (2018) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in sera from children 3 to 11 years of age participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2014. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 221, 9-16.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yeung LWY, So MK, Jiang G, Taniyasu S, Yamashita N, Song M, Wu Y, Li J, Giesy JP, Guruge KS, Lam PKS (2006) Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood samples from China. Environmental Science & Technology 40, 715-720.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zalasiewicz J, Williams M, Haywood A, Ellis M (2011) The Anthropocene: a new epoch of geological time? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369, 835-841.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zhang H, Lu Y, Luo B, Yan S, Guo X, Dai J (2014) Proteomic analysis of mouse testis reveals perfluorooctanoic acid-induced reproductive dysfunction via direct disturbance of testicular steroidogenic machinery. Journal of Proteome Research 13, 3370-3385.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zhao Z, Cheng X, Hua X, Jiang B, Tian C, Tang J, Li Q, Sun H, Lin T, Liao Y, Zhang G (2020) Emerging and legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water, sediment, and air of the Bohai Sea and its surrounding rivers. Environmental Pollution 263, 114391.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zhou J, Baumann K, Surratt JD, Turpin BJ (2022) Legacy and emerging airborne per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) collected on PM_2.5 filters in close proximity to a fluoropolymer manufacturing facility. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 24, 2272-2283.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zhu Y, Pan X, Jia Y, Yang X, Song X, Ding J, Zhong W, Feng J, Zhu L (2023) Exploring route-specific pharmacokinetics of PFAS in mice by coupling in vivo tests and physiologically based toxicokinetic models. Environmental Health Perspectives 131, 127012.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |