Australian forested wetlands under climate change: collapse or proliferation?
Neil Saintilan
A J , Emma Asbridge B C , Richard Lucas D , Kerrylee Rogers B C , Li Wen E , Megan Powell A E , Matthew J. Colloff F , Jose F. Rodriguez G H , Patricia M. Saco G H , Steven Sandi G H , Tien Dat Pham A and Leo Lymburner I
A Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
B School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
C GeoQuEST Research Centre, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
D Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, Wales, UK.
E Science, Economics and Insights Division, NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
F Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
G Centre for Water Security and Environmental Sustainability, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
H School of Engineering, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
I Geoscience Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
J Corresponding author. Email: neil.saintilan@mq.edu.au
Marine and Freshwater Research 73(10) 1255-1262 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF21233
Submitted: 11 August 2021 Accepted: 18 October 2021 Published: 9 November 2021
Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2022 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Climatically driven perturbations (e.g. intense drought, fire, sea surface temperature rise) can bring ecosystems that are already stressed by long-term climate change and other anthropogenic impacts to a point of collapse. Recent reviews of the responses of Australian ecosystems to climate change and associated stressors have suggested widespread ecosystem collapse is occurring across multiple biomes. Two commonly cited case studies concern forested wetland ecosystems: mangrove forest dieback in northern Australia (2015–16) and riverine forest dieback in the south-east of the continent (2002–09). We present an alternative interpretation that emphasises the dominant signal of climate change effects, rather than the interdecadal signal of climate variability that drives wetland forest dynamics. For both the south-east Australian riverine forests and mangroves of northern Australia, aerial extent remains greater after dieback than in the early 1990s. We interpret dieback and defoliation in both systems as a dry phase response and provide evidence of a current and near-future climate change trajectory of increased areal extent and cover (i.e. tree colonisation and range infilling). In both case studies, climate change-driven increases in tree cover and extent are occurring at the expense of wetland grasslands and the important ecosystem functions they support.
Concerns raised over Australian forested wetlands
The effect of a warming climate on patterns of tree recruitment, growth and mortality is a topic of considerable debate (Allen et al. 2015; Hartmann et al. 2015). Observations of woody vegetation growth at regional and continental scales suggest an overarching pattern of biomass increase in the absence of local deforestation, an outcome of CO2 fertilisation, increased water use efficiency, a warmer atmosphere and locally enhanced atmospheric water content (Sittaro et al. 2017; Song et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2018). The expansion of woody vegetation into grasslands has been described from North America (Van Auken 2009), semi-arid and tropical Australia (Fensham et al. 2005), Europe (Maestre et al. 2009), India (Misra 1983) and China (Peng et al. 2013), contributing to an increase in tree canopy cover across the globe (Song et al. 2018). However, the combination of elevated temperatures and severe drought appear to be increasing tree mortality in several biomes, including tropical and boreal forests (Sitch et al. 2015; Birch et al. 2019; Locosselli et al. 2020). The increasing coincidence of drought and higher temperatures (‘hotter droughts’) is likely to increase the prevalence and speed of tree mortality under climate change (Allen et al. 2015; McDowell et al. 2020), increasing the vulnerability of forests already exposed to increased fire risk (Kirchmeier‐Young et al. 2019) and insect predation (Pureswaran et al. 2018).
Short-term extreme climate events, superimposed on the background stress of climate change and other anthropogenic stressors, have been proposed to explain recent widespread changes in Australian ecosystems in recent reviews (Harris et al. 2018; Australian Academy of Science 2021; Bergstrom et al. 2021). Of these ecosystems of concern, two may be categorised as forested wetlands: mangrove forests of northern Australia and riverine (river red gum) forests of the south-east of the continent (Fig 1). Across the north of Australia, extreme low rainfall corresponding to a negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole, coincided with a low sea level anomaly and record high air temperatures contributing to conditions of extreme water stress (Asbridge et al. 2016; Bergstrom et al. 2021), reducing mangrove cover by ~6% in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 2015 (Duke et al. 2017). River red gum forests, the most widespread wetland forests in the south-east of the continent, have been reduced from their pre-European extent due to forestry, land clearing and changes to flood regimes due to irrigation development, with an estimated 60% of the pre-European extent of floodplain forest retained in Victoria and 68% in New South Wales (Mac Nally et al. 2011). Widespread declines in the condition of riverine forests occurred throughout the Murray–Darling Basin during the Millennium Drought (Mac Nally et al. 2011), a period of prolonged below-average rainfall extending from 1997 to 2010 (van Dijk et al. 2013).
|
Here, we consider trends in mangrove and river red gum forest cover, reviewing the most extensive available mapping (Bowen et al. 2017; Lymburner et al. 2020; Saintilan et al. 2021), applying common mapping protocols to assess changes in spatial distribution and canopy cover through time. Although phases of drought clearly affect canopy condition and mortality rates in both forest types, we provide evidence of an overarching pattern of long-term expansion in forest cover, a likely outcome of global climate drivers. This expansion is associated with a concerning trend of a loss in the extent of wetland grasslands, a vegetation community that makes unique contributions to wetland biodiversity.
Observations of forested wetland resilience and expansion
In common with many Eucalyptus species, the river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis sheds its leaves to reduce transpiration as an adaptation to drought and water stress, but recovers its canopy rapidly by epicormic growth following improvement in soil moisture conditions (Cunningham et al. 2007; Doody et al. 2015; Souter 2019), as evident during and following the Millennium Drought (Colloff and Baldwin 2010; Wen et al. 2012; Wen and Saintilan 2015; Curtis et al. 2019). The species can survive decadal-long periods between inundation (Colloff 2014; Doody et al. 2015; Shaeri Karimi et al. 2021), although with greatly reduced canopy cover. Long-term mapping of some of the most extensive E. camaldulensis forests (the Barmah–Millewa Forest and the Macquarie Marshes) using historical aerial photography suggests a substantial increase in extent at the expense of wetland grassland communities over recent decades. For example, in the Barmah–Millewa Forest (35°50′S, 145°00′E), the largest stand of E. camaldulensis in Australia, forest extent has expanded since the 1940s (Bren 1992; Colloff et al. 2014; Saintilan et al. 2021), primarily into areas previously occupied by flood-dependent Moira grass Pseudoraphis spinescens. Under natural recruitment regimes, E. camaldulensis stands in the forest were at higher densities and higher canopy cover following the Millennium Drought compared with the historical, pre-logging era in the previous century (McGregor et al. 2016). In the Macquarie Marshes (30°43′S, 147°32′E), E. camaldulensis forest extent increased between 1991 and 2013 (Bino et al. 2015; Bowen et al. 2017; Saintilan et al. 2021). Although mortality has been reported during and after the Millennium Drought (Catelotti et al. 2015), dead trees were clustered primarily in areas that were already identified as stressed (Table 1) during a benchmark survey in 1993 (Bacon 1996).
|
In the case of the mangroves in northern Australia, the same trend of long-term expansion applies. Progressive landward and seaward extension over the period 1987–2015 was identified using a time-series of Earth observation datasets in Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory (NT; Asbridge and Lucas 2016) and the Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland and NT; Asbridge et al. 2016). The landward extension was attributed to sea-level fluctuation consistent with trends across the continent (Saintilan et al. 2014), facilitating the incursion of salt water (particularly through networks of tidal creeks), leading to greater propagule dispersal, allowing mangroves to establish and, in some cases, rapidly colonise low-lying flood plains (Lucas et al. 2018; Asbridge et al. 2019).
Landsat-based satellite observations of annual mangrove cover at the continental scale between 1988 and 2017 show an expansion in mangrove extent and a thickening of mangrove canopy cover, particularly since the early 1990s and along low-lying coastal plains (Lymburner et al. 2020). Maximum mangrove extent in the Gulf of Carpentaria was attained c. 2011 (Fig. 2), with subsequent decline, most obvious in 2015, reversing gains made in the previous two decades (Fig. 2) and affecting mangroves recruited in that period (Asbridge and Lucas 2016; Asbridge et al. 2016, 2019; Lymburner et al. 2020). The expansion and contraction in mangrove cover in the Gulf of Carpentaria is suggestive of a response to modes of climate and sea level variability (the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole) superimposed on a longer-term trend of increasing extent and canopy cover (Fig 2).
|
Detailed space- and air-borne observations from the West Alligator River, Kakadu National Park, also show that the extent of mangroves following the 2015 defoliation and dieback was greater than the 1991 reference point due to the longer-term pattern of landward encroachment and on-going seaward expansion in some areas associated with estuary infill and sediment redistributions (Asbridge et al. 2019). Phases of contraction and subsequent expansion in extent and canopy cover have occurred previously in relation to El Niño events, associated with reductions in sea levels and an increase in pore water salinity (Lovelock et al. 2017).
Consistency with global patterns of change and climate drivers
Tree cover expansion in large wetland complexes in Australia is consistent with trends in wetlands across the globe, covering a wide range of climatic, biogeographical and geomorphological settings. Tree cover expansion has been documented as replacing wetland grasslands in many of the world’s most iconic wetlands, including the Pantanal (Barbosa da Silva et al. 2016; Arieira et al. 2018), the Florida Everglades (Martin et al. 2009) and the Okavango Delta, where 27% of open grassland has been replaced by mixed woodland (Hamandawana and Chanda 2010). High-latitude and alpine sedgeland bogs and fens have also been subject to woody encroachment (Elmendorf et al. 2012), including on the Qinghai–Tibet plateau (Brandt et al. 2013) and in Alaska (Berg et al. 2009), Canada (Favreau et al. 2019), the US (Stine et al. 2011), Europe (Middleton et al. 2006) and Tasmania, Australia (Bowman et al. 2008).
The drivers of woody encroachment into wetland grasslands, whether inland or coastal, may vary between settings depending on the biophysical characteristics of the landscape and the degree of anthropogenic influences (Saintilan and Rogers 2015). Many changes have been driven primarily by climate, particularly changes in temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increased temperatures have led to changes in the frequency and intensity of wildfires. This has provided opportunities for tree recruitment in dryland savannas (Van Auken 2000; Kgope et al. 2010), although a return to historical fire regimes has, in some cases, been insufficient to reverse the trend of woody encroachment (Wigley et al. 2010). Warmer temperatures have also allowed altitudinal and latitudinal expansion of tree ranges, and decreased frost frequency has been associated with mangrove proliferation at high latitudes in the US (Cavanaugh et al. 2014; Osland et al. 2017).
In dryland grasslands at the arid limits of tree growth, elevated atmospheric CO2 may facilitate woody plant survival by conferring higher water use efficiency (Idso 1992; Polley et al. 1997). By contrast, many wetland grassland communities gain little benefit from this increase and are being replaced by woody encroachment. These communities include Sporobolus virginicus saltmarsh and freshwater grasslands of P. spinescens (Moira grass) and Paspalum distichum (water couch), which use the C4 photosynthetic pathway. However, rushes and sedges that use the C3 pathway, including Juncus kraussii in the saltmarsh and Typha spp. (cumbungi) in freshwater systems, seem more resistant to colonisation by woody vegetation during and following drought (Saintilan et al. 2014, 2021; Sandi et al. 2019), although differences in growth habit and location may also confer resilience to larger, thicker rushes and reeds. Atmospheric CO2 fertilisation may be an important factor contributing to Eucalyptus survival on the outer flood plains of Australian semi-arid rivers where water diversions for irrigation have resulted in decreases in the inundation extent and frequency of flood events (Sims et al. 2012; Saintilan and Rogers 2015). Elevated CO2 concentrations may also facilitate mangrove colonisation of ‘physiologically dry’ environments, such as hypersaline upper intertidal saltmarsh, reinforcing the benefit of increased inundation frequency associated with sea level rise (McKee and Rooth 2008).
Implications for wetland grasses and trees
The fate of Australian forested wetlands in a +3°C warmer world may differ from trends observed under current warming (Australian Academy of Science 2021). While we argue that a continuation of mangrove expansion into northern Australian coastal flood plains is likely during coming decades, there is little evidence to suggest that large mangrove forests can persist in situ for long periods under rates of sea level rise projected by the end of the present century under high or even mid-range climate change projections (Saintilan et al. 2020; Breda et al. 2021). The benefits to tree growth conferred by the CO2 fertilisation effect may diminish under hotter drought conditions. Such droughts are projected to become more frequent and severe, given the increased prevalence of the dry phase of two key Australian climate drivers in recent decades, namely the Indian Ocean Dipole (Abram et al. 2020) and the Southern Annular Mode (Dätwyler et al. 2018). An increase in the frequency of short-term mortality events may tip the balance towards river red gum and mangrove forest decline in some settings. These declines may be exacerbated by successive climate events and processes that affect ecosystems in different ways and progressively compromise the ability of ecosystems to recover (Asbridge et al. 2018).
On current observations, we expect the immediate effect of climate change will be a continued expansion in the extent of mangrove and river red gum during coming decades. Based on patterns of recent mangrove expansion (Asbridge et al. 2016; Lymburner et al. 2020) and projections of landward retreat with sea level rise, the trend of mangrove expansion into broad coastal and estuarine flood plains of northern Australia will likely continue (Lovelock et al. 2015; Schuerch et al. 2018; Asbridge et al. 2019), furthering the contraction of coastal floodplain freshwater wetlands in the region (Bowman et al. 2010; Saintilan et al. 2019).
The capacity for river red gum to survive extended drought by accessing a range of water sources (lateral seepage from rivers, saline groundwater, rainfall and palaeo-channel reservoirs) and reducing water uptake by shedding its canopy (Mensforth et al. 1994; Doody et al. 2015) makes it unlikely that drought-mediated declines will be widespread or persistent. This is particularly because river red gum is the most broadly distributed Eucalyptus species throughout arid Australia and is widespread across a range of climatic and biogeographical settings (Colloff 2014). Reductions in flooding frequency also promote the invasion of reed beds and freshwater grasslands by river red gum (Bren 1992; Colloff 2014; Bowen et al. 2017). Although spike-rush (Eleocharis spp.) swamps have shown some post-drought recovery (Wassens et al. 2017), this has not been observed for the wetland grasslands dominated by P. spinescens and P. distichum, which may have suffered permanent losses at several locations, often to river red gum (Vivian et al. 2015; Wassens et al. 2017; Saintilan et al. 2021).
The decline of wetland grasslands has important implications for maintaining or enhancing biodiversity, including through conservation and land management and ecosystem restoration. The wetland grasslands of the Murray–Darling Basin are preferred feeding habitat for a diverse range of species, including herbivorous waterbirds (Braithwaite and Frith 1969; Colloff 2014) and mammals (e.g. kangaroos; Iles et al. 2010). Temperate coastal saltmarshes that overlap in range with temperate mangrove distribution are used as feeding habitat by migratory shorebirds and endemic grassland birds, many of which are endangered, including the orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster, the yellow chat Epthianura crocea macgregori and the slender-billed thornbill Acanthiza iredalei rosinae (Spencer et al. 2006; Kelleway et al. 2017). Three species of threatened microbats, namely Chalinolobus dwyeri, Mormopterus norfolkensis and Saccolaimus flaviventris, were found to feed exclusively in saltmarsh habitats (Gonsalves et al. 2012).
Conclusions
The defoliation response of forest wetland trees to drought is easily monitored at broad spatial scales. On the Australian continent, where phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole have driven sharp downturns in canopy extent, these changes have been widely reported. Case studies of forest decline, specifically the mangroves of northern Australia and the river red gum forests of the Murray–Darling Basin, have been posited as exemplars of ecosystem collapse under climate change in recent reviews (Harris et al. 2018; Bergstrom et al. 2021; and references therein). We have argued that detailed mapping both cases demonstrates an overarching trend of wetland tree proliferation at the expense of wetland grasslands.
Fortunately, from a conservation perspective, the vulnerability of temperate and subtropical coastal saltmarsh to climate change has been recognised, including through their listing as a vulnerable or threatened ecological community under state and commonwealth legislation (Rogers et al. 2016). The potential of ‘blue carbon’ benefits also provides a further incentive for restoration under national emissions reduction initiatives (Kelleway et al. 2020). Conservation outcomes for freshwater wetland grasslands have received less attention, despite concerns raised by reserve managers of a trend towards tree monocultures in freshwater floodplain wetlands (Fazey et al. 2006). Hence, there is an urgent requirement to consider the future changes in these ecosystems, particularly given further impacts of climate change on water availability and ongoing discussions on environmental water policy, management and allocation (Chen et al. 2021; Kirsch et al. 2021). This is becoming paramount given that changes in the flooding frequency and depth favour ongoing eucalypt expansion into core grassland habitat.
Data availability
The data used in generating Fig. 1 are available at https://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/socd/lsa/SeaLevelRise/LSA_SLR_timeseries_global.php and http://dea-public-data.s3-website-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/?prefix=mangrove_cover/v2.0.2/
Declaration of funding
This research did not receive any specific funding.
Conflicts of interest
Kerrylee Rogers is an Associate Editor for Marine and Freshwater Research but did not at any stage have editor-level access to this manuscript while in peer review, as is the standard practice when handling manuscripts submitted by an editor to this Journal. Marine and Freshwater Research encourages its editors to publish in the Journal and they are kept totally separate from the decision-making processes for their manuscripts. The authors have no further conflicts of interest to declare.
References
Abram, N. J., Hargreaves, J. A., Wright, N. M., Thirumalai, K., Ummenhofer, C. C., and England, M. H. (2020). Palaeoclimate perspectives on the Indian Ocean dipole. Quaternary Science Reviews 237, 106302.| Palaeoclimate perspectives on the Indian Ocean dipole.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Allen, C. D., Breshears, D. D., and McDowell, N. G. (2015). On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die‐off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene. Ecosphere 6, art129.
| On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die‐off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Arieira, J., Padovani, C. R., Schuchmann, K. L., Landeiro, V. L., and Santos, S. A. (2018). Modeling climatic and hydrological suitability for an encroaching tree species in a Neotropical flooded savanna. Forest Ecology and Management 429, 244–255.
| Modeling climatic and hydrological suitability for an encroaching tree species in a Neotropical flooded savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Asbridge, E., and Lucas, R. (2016). Mangrove response to environmental change in Kakadu National Park. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 9, 5612–5620.
| Mangrove response to environmental change in Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Asbridge, E., Lucas, R., Ticehurst, C., and Bunting, P. (2016). Mangrove response to environmental change in Australia’s Gulf of Carpentaria. Ecology and Evolution 6, 3523–3539.
| Mangrove response to environmental change in Australia’s Gulf of Carpentaria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27148442PubMed |
Asbridge, E., Lucas, R., Rogers, K., and Accad, A. (2018). The extent of mangrove change and potential for recovery following severe Tropical Cyclone Yasi, Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, Australia Ecology and Evolution 8, 10416–10434.
| The extent of mangrove change and potential for recovery following severe Tropical Cyclone Yasi, Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, AustraliaCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30464815PubMed |
Asbridge, E. F., Bartolo, R., Finlayson, C. M., Lucas, R. M., Rogers, K., and Woodroffe, C. D. (2019). Assessing the distribution and drivers of mangrove dieback in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 228, 106353.
| Assessing the distribution and drivers of mangrove dieback in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Australian Academy of Science (2021). The risks to Australia of a 3°C warmer world. (AAS.) Available at https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/science-policy-and-analysis/reports-and-publications/risks-australia-three-degrees-c-warmer-world
Bacon, P. (1996) Relationships between water supply, water quality and the performance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in the Macquarie Marshes of NSW. Department of Land and Water Conservation, Dubbo, NSW, Australia.
Barbosa da Silva, F. H., Arieira, J., Parolin, P., Nunes da Cunha, C., and Junk, W. J. (2016). Shrub encroachment influences herbaceous communities in flooded grasslands of a neotropical savanna wetland. Applied Vegetation Science 19, 391–400.
| Shrub encroachment influences herbaceous communities in flooded grasslands of a neotropical savanna wetland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Berg, E. E., Hillman, K. M., Dial, R., and DeRuwe, A. (2009). Recent woody invasion of wetlands on the Kenai Peninsula Lowlands, south-central Alaska: a major regime shift after 18 000 years of wet Sphagnum–sedge peat recruitment. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, 2033–2046.
| Recent woody invasion of wetlands on the Kenai Peninsula Lowlands, south-central Alaska: a major regime shift after 18 000 years of wet Sphagnum–sedge peat recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bergstrom, D. M., Wienecke, B. C., van den Hoff, J., Hughes, L., Lindenmayer, D. B., Ainsworth, T. D., Baker, C. M., Bland, L., Bowman, D. M. J. S., Brooks, S. T., Canadell, J. G., Constable, A. J., Dafforn, K. A., Depledge, M. H., Dickson, C. R., Duke, N. C., Helmstedt, K. J., Holz, A., Johnson, C. R., McGeoch, M. A., Melbourne-Thomas, J., Morgain, E., Nicholson, E., Prober, S. M., Raymond, B., Ritchie, E. G., Robinson, S. A., Ruthrof, K. X., Setterfield, S., Sgrò, C. M., Stark, J. S., Travers, T., Trebilco, R., Ward, D. F. L., Wardle, G. M., Williams, K. J., Zylstra, P. J., and Shaw, J. D. (2021). Combating ecosystem collapse from the tropics to the Antarctic. Global Change Biology 27, 1692–1703.
| Combating ecosystem collapse from the tropics to the Antarctic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 33629799PubMed |
Bino, G., Sisson, S. A., Kingsford, R. T., Thomas, R. F., and Bowen, S. (2015). Developing state and transition models of floodplain vegetation dynamics as a tool for conservation decision-making: a case study of the Macquarie Marshes Ramsar wetland. Journal of Applied Ecology 52, 654–664.
| Developing state and transition models of floodplain vegetation dynamics as a tool for conservation decision-making: a case study of the Macquarie Marshes Ramsar wetland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Birch, J. D., Lutz, J. A., Hogg, E. H., Simard, S. W., Pelletier, R., LaRoi, G. H., and Karst, J. (2019). Decline of an ecotone forest: 50 years of demography in the southern boreal forest. Ecosphere 10, e02698.
| Decline of an ecotone forest: 50 years of demography in the southern boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowen, S., Simpson, S. L., Hosking, T., and Shelly, D. S. (2017). Changes in the extent and condition of the vegetation of the Macquarie Marshes and floodplain 1991–2008–2013. NSW Office of Environmental and Heritage, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Bowman, D. M. J. S., Riley, J. E., Boggs, G. S., Lehmann, C. E. R., and Prior, L. D. (2008). Do feral buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) explain the increase of woody cover in savannas of Kakadu National Park, Australia? Journal of Biogeography 35, 1976–1988.
| Do feral buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) explain the increase of woody cover in savannas of Kakadu National Park, Australia?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman, D. M. J. S., Prior, L. D., and De Little, S. C. (2010). Retreating Melaleuca swamp forests in Kakadu National Park: evidence of synergistic effects of climate change and past feral buffalo impacts. Austral Ecology 35, 898–905.
| Retreating Melaleuca swamp forests in Kakadu National Park: evidence of synergistic effects of climate change and past feral buffalo impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Braithwaite, L. W., and Frith, H. J. (1969). Waterfowl in an inland swamp in New South Wales. 1. Habitat. CSIRO Wildlife Research 14, 1–16.
| Waterfowl in an inland swamp in New South Wales. 1. Habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brandt, J. S., Haynes, M. A., Kuemmerle, T., Waller, D. M., and Radeloff, V. C. (2013). Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas. Biological Conservation 158, 116–127.
| Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Breda, A., Saco, P. M., Sandi, S. G., Saintilan, N., Riccardi, G., and Rodríguez, J. F. (2021). Accretion, retreat and transgression of coastal wetlands experiencing sea-level rise. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 25, 769–786.
| Accretion, retreat and transgression of coastal wetlands experiencing sea-level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bren, L. J. (1992). Tree invasion of an intermittent wetland in relation to changes in flooding frequency of the River Murray, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 17, 395–408.
| Tree invasion of an intermittent wetland in relation to changes in flooding frequency of the River Murray, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Catelotti, K., Kingsford, R. T., Bino, G., and Bacon, P. (2015). Inundation requirements for persistence and recovery of river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in semi-arid Australia. Biological Conservation 184, 346–356.
| Inundation requirements for persistence and recovery of river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in semi-arid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cavanaugh, K. C., Kellner, J. R., Forde, A. J., Gruner, D. S., Parker, J. D., Rodriguez, W., and Feller, I. C. (2014). Poleward expansion of mangroves is a threshold response to decreased frequency of extreme cold events. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111, 723–727.
| Poleward expansion of mangroves is a threshold response to decreased frequency of extreme cold events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24379379PubMed |
Chen, Y., Colloff, M. J., Lukasiewicz, A., and Pittock, J. (2021). A trickle, not a flood: environmental watering in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 72, 601–619.
| A trickle, not a flood: environmental watering in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Colloff, M. J. (2014). ‘Flooded Forest and Desert Creek: Ecology and History of the River Red Gum.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)
Colloff, M. J., and Baldwin, D. S. (2010). Resilience of floodplain ecosystems in a semi-arid environment. The Rangeland Journal 32, 305–314.
| Resilience of floodplain ecosystems in a semi-arid environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Colloff, M. J., Ward, K. A., and Roberts, J. (2014). Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass Pseudoraphis spinescens in the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia. Aquatic Conservation 24, 238–255.
| Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass Pseudoraphis spinescens in the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cunningham, S. C., Read, J., Baker, P. J., and Mac Nally, R. (2007). Quantitative assessment of stand condition and its relationship to physiological stress in stands of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 55, 692–699.
| Quantitative assessment of stand condition and its relationship to physiological stress in stands of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Curtis, E. J., Gorrod, E. J., Ellis, M. V., and Chisholm, L. A. (2019). A spatio-temporal analysis of canopy dynamics and intra-stand competition in a riparian forest, south-eastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 432, 189–199.
| A spatio-temporal analysis of canopy dynamics and intra-stand competition in a riparian forest, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dätwyler, C., Neukom, R., Abram, N. J., Gallant, A. J., Grosjean, M., Jacques-Coper, M., Karoly, D. J., and Villalba, R. (2018). Teleconnection stationarity, variability and trends of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) during the last millennium. Climate Dynamics 51, 2321–2339.
| Teleconnection stationarity, variability and trends of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) during the last millennium.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Doody, T. M., Colloff, M. J., Davies, M., Koul, V., Benyon, R. G., and Nagler, P. L. (2015). Quantifying water requirements of riparian river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia – implications for environmental water allocations. Ecohydrology 8, 1471–1487.
| Quantifying water requirements of riparian river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia – implications for environmental water allocations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duke, N. C., Kovacs, J. M., Griffiths, A. D., Preece, L., Hill, D. J., van Oosterzee, P., Mackenzie, J., Morning, H. S., and Burrows, D. (2017). Large-scale dieback of mangroves in Australia’s Gulf of Carpentaria: a severe ecosystem response, coincidental with an unusually extreme weather event. Marine and Freshwater Research 68, 1816–1829.
| Large-scale dieback of mangroves in Australia’s Gulf of Carpentaria: a severe ecosystem response, coincidental with an unusually extreme weather event.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elmendorf, S. C., Henry, G. H., Hollister, R. D., Björk, R. G., Bjorkman, A. D., Callaghan, T. V., Collier, L. S., Cooper, E. J., Cornelissen, J. H., Day, T. A., and Fosaa, A. M. (2012). Global assessment of experimental climate warming on tundra vegetation: heterogeneity over space and time. Ecology Letters 15, 164–175.
| Global assessment of experimental climate warming on tundra vegetation: heterogeneity over space and time.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22136670PubMed |
Favreau, M., Pellerin, S., and Poulin, M. (2019). Tree encroachment induces biotic differentiation in Sphagnum-dominated bogs. Wetlands 39, 841–852.
| Tree encroachment induces biotic differentiation in Sphagnum-dominated bogs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fazey, I., Proust, K., Newell, B., Johnson, B., and Fazey, J. A. (2006). Eliciting the implicit knowledge and perceptions of on-ground conservation managers of the Macquarie Marshes. Ecology and Society 11, art25.
| Eliciting the implicit knowledge and perceptions of on-ground conservation managers of the Macquarie Marshes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fensham, R. J., Fairfax, R. J., and Archer, S. R. (2005). Rainfall, land use and woody vegetation cover change in semi‐arid Australian savanna. Journal of Ecology 93, 596–606.
| Rainfall, land use and woody vegetation cover change in semi‐arid Australian savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gonsalves, L., Law, B., Webb, C., and Monamy, V. (2012). Are vegetation interfaces important to foraging insectivorous bats in endangered coastal saltmarsh on the Central Coast of New South Wales? Pacific Conservation Biology 18, 282–292.
| Are vegetation interfaces important to foraging insectivorous bats in endangered coastal saltmarsh on the Central Coast of New South Wales?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hamandawana, H., and Chanda, R. (2010). Natural and human dimensions of environmental change in the proximal reaches of Botswana’s Okavango Delta. The Geographical Journal 176, 58–76.
| Natural and human dimensions of environmental change in the proximal reaches of Botswana’s Okavango Delta.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris, R. M. B., Beaumont, L. J., Vance, T. R., Tozer, C. R., Remenyi, T. A., Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E., Mitchell, P. J., Nicotra, A. B., McGregor, S., Andrew, N. R., Letnic, M., Kearney, M. R., Wernberg, T., Hutley, L. B., Chambers, L. B., Fletcher, M. S., Keatley, M. R., Woodward, C. A., Williamson, G., Duke, N. C., and Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2018). Biological responses to the press and pulse of climate trends and extreme events. Nature Climate Change 8, 579–587.
| Biological responses to the press and pulse of climate trends and extreme events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hartmann, H., Adams, H. D., Anderegg, W. R., Jansen, S., and Zeppel, M. J. (2015). Research frontiers in drought‐induced tree mortality: crossing scales and disciplines. New Phytologist 205, 965–969.
| Research frontiers in drought‐induced tree mortality: crossing scales and disciplines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Idso, S. (1992). Shrubland expansion in the American Southwest. Climatic Change 22, 85–86.
| Shrubland expansion in the American Southwest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Iles, J., Kelleway, J., Kobayashi, T., Mazumder, D., Knowles, L., Priddel, D., and Saintilan, N. (2010). Grazing kangaroos act as local recyclers of energy on semiarid floodplains. Australian Journal of Zoology 58, 145–149.
| Grazing kangaroos act as local recyclers of energy on semiarid floodplains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kelleway, J. J., Cavanaugh, K., Rogers, K., Feller, I. C., Ens, E., Doughty, C., and Saintilan, N. (2017). Review of the ecosystem service implications of mangrove encroachment into salt marshes. Global Change Biology 23, 3967–3983.
| Review of the ecosystem service implications of mangrove encroachment into salt marshes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28544444PubMed |
Kelleway, J. J., Serrano, O., Baldock, J. A., Burgess, R., Cannard, T., Lavery, P. S., Lovelock, C. E., Macreadie, P. J., Masqué, P., Newnham, M., Saintilan, N., and Steven, A. D. L. (2020). A national approach to greenhouse gas abatement through blue carbon management. Global Environmental Change 63, 102083.
| A national approach to greenhouse gas abatement through blue carbon management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kgope, B. S., Bond, W. J., and Midgley, G. F. (2010). Growth responses of African savanna trees implicate atmospheric [CO2] as a driver of past and current changes in savanna tree cover. Austral Ecology 35, 451–463.
| Growth responses of African savanna trees implicate atmospheric [CO2] as a driver of past and current changes in savanna tree cover.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirchmeier‐Young, M. C., Gillett, N. P., Zwiers, F. W., Cannon, A. J., and Anslow, F. S. (2019). Attribution of the influence of human‐induced climate change on an extreme fire season. Earth’s Future 7, 2–10.
| Attribution of the influence of human‐induced climate change on an extreme fire season.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirsch, E., Colloff, M. J., and Pittock, J. (2021). Lacking character? A policy analysis of environmental watering of Ramsar wetlands in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research , .
| Lacking character? A policy analysis of environmental watering of Ramsar wetlands in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Locosselli, G. M., Brienen, R. J., de Souza Leite, M., Gloor, M., Krottenthaler, S., de Oliveira, A. A., Barichevich, J., Anhuf, D., Ceccantini, G., Schöngart, J., and Buckeridge, M. (2020). Global tree-ring analysis reveals rapid decrease in tropical tree longevity with temperature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117, 33358–33364.
| Global tree-ring analysis reveals rapid decrease in tropical tree longevity with temperature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 33318167PubMed |
Lovelock, C. E., Cahoon, D. R., Friess, D. A., Guntenspergen, G. R., Krauss, K. W., Reef, R., Rogers, K., Saunders, M. L., Sidik, F., Swales, A., Saintilan, N., Tuyen, L. X., and Triet, T. (2015). The vulnerability of Indo-Pacific mangrove forests to sea-level rise. Nature 526, 559–563.
| The vulnerability of Indo-Pacific mangrove forests to sea-level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26466567PubMed |
Lovelock, C. E., Feller, I. C., Reef, R., Hickey, S., and Ball, M. C. (2017). Mangrove dieback during fluctuating sea levels. Scientific Reports 7, 1680.
| Mangrove dieback during fluctuating sea levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28490782PubMed |
Lucas, R., Finlayson, C. M., Bartolo, R., Rogers, K., Mitchell, A., Woodroffe, C. D., Asbridge, E., and Ens, E. (2018). Historical perspectives on the mangroves of Kakadu National Park. Marine and Freshwater Research 69, 1047–1063.
| Historical perspectives on the mangroves of Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lymburner, L., Bunting, P., Lucas, R., Scarth, P., Alam, I., Phillips, C., Ticehurst, C., and Held, A. (2020). Mapping the multi-decadal mangrove dynamics of the Australian coastline. Remote Sensing of Environment 238, 111185.
| Mapping the multi-decadal mangrove dynamics of the Australian coastline.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mac Nally, R., Cunningham, S. C., Baker, P. J., Horner, G. J., and Thomson, J. R. (2011). Dynamics of Murray‐Darling floodplain forests under multiple stressors: the past, present, and future of an Australian icon. Water Resources Research 47, W00G05.
| Dynamics of Murray‐Darling floodplain forests under multiple stressors: the past, present, and future of an Australian icon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maestre, F. T., Bowker, M. A., Puche, M. D., Hinojosa, B. B., Martinez, I., Garcia-Palacios, P., Castillo, A. P., Soliveres, S., Luzuriaga, A. L., Carreira, J. A., Gallardo, A., and Escudero, A. (2009). Shrub encroachment can reverse desertification in semi-arid Mediterranean grasslands. Ecology Letters 12, 930–941.
| Shrub encroachment can reverse desertification in semi-arid Mediterranean grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19638041PubMed |
Martin, M. R., Tipping, P. W., and Sickman, J. O. (2009). Invasion by an exotic tree alters above and belowground ecosystem components. Biological Invasions 11, 1883–1894.
| Invasion by an exotic tree alters above and belowground ecosystem components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McDowell, N. G., Allen, C. D., Anderson-Teixeira, K., Aukema, B. H., Bond-Lamberty, B., Chini, L., Clarke, J. S., Dietze, M., Grossiord, C., Hanbury-Brown, A., Hurtt, G. C., Jackson, R. B., Johnson, D. J., Kueppers, L., Lichstein, J. W., Ogle, K., Poulter, B., Pugh, T. A. M., Seidl, R., Turner, M. G., Uriate, M., Walker, A. P., and Xu, C. (2020). Pervasive shifts in forest dynamics in a changing world. Science 368, eaaz9463.
| Pervasive shifts in forest dynamics in a changing world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32467364PubMed |
McGregor, H. W., Colloff, M. J., and Lunt, I. D. (2016). Did early logging or changes in disturbance regimes promote high tree densities in river red gum forests? Australian Journal of Botany 64, 530–538.
| Did early logging or changes in disturbance regimes promote high tree densities in river red gum forests?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKee, K. L., and Rooth, J. E. (2008). Where temperate meets tropical: multi‐factorial effects of elevated CO2, nitrogen enrichment, and competition on a mangrove‐salt marsh community. Global Change Biology 14, 971–984.
| Where temperate meets tropical: multi‐factorial effects of elevated CO2, nitrogen enrichment, and competition on a mangrove‐salt marsh community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mensforth, L., Thorburn, P., Tyerman, S., and Walker, G. (1994). Sources of water used by riparian Eucalyptus camaldulensis overlying highly saline groundwater. Oecologia 100, 21–28.
| Sources of water used by riparian Eucalyptus camaldulensis overlying highly saline groundwater.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28307023PubMed |
Middleton, B. A., Holsten, B., and van Diggelen, R. (2006). Biodiversity management of fens and fen meadows by grazing, cutting and burning. Applied Vegetation Science 9, 307–316.
| Biodiversity management of fens and fen meadows by grazing, cutting and burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Misra, R. (1983). Indian savannas. In ‘Ecosystems of the World’ (Ed. F. Bourliere.) pp. 151–166. (Elsevier: New York, NY, USA.)
Osland, M. J., Day, R. H., Hall, C. T., Brumfield, M. D., Dugas, J. L., and Jones, W. R. (2017). Mangrove expansion and contraction at a poleward range limit: climate extremes and land‐ocean temperature gradients. Ecology 98, 125–137.
| Mangrove expansion and contraction at a poleward range limit: climate extremes and land‐ocean temperature gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27935029PubMed |
Peng, H. Y., Li, X. Y., Li, G. Y., Zhang, Z. H., Zhang, S. Y., Li, L., Chao, G. Q., Jiang, Z. Y., and Ma, Y. J. (2013). Shrub encroachment with increasing anthropogenic disturbance in the semiarid Inner Mongolian grasslands of China. Catena 109, 39–48.
| Shrub encroachment with increasing anthropogenic disturbance in the semiarid Inner Mongolian grasslands of China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Polley, H. W., Mayeux, H. S., Johnson, H. B., and Tischler, C. R. (1997). Viewpoint: atmospheric CO2, soil water, and shrub/grass ratios on rangelands. Journal of Range Management 50, 278–284.
| Viewpoint: atmospheric CO2, soil water, and shrub/grass ratios on rangelands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pureswaran, D. S., Roques, A., and Battisti, A. (2018). Forest insects and climate change. Current Forestry Reports 4, 35–50.
| Forest insects and climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rogers, K., Boon, P. I., Branigan, S., Duke, N. C., Field, C. D., Fitzsimons, J. A., Kirkman, H., Mackenzie, J. R., and Saintilan, N. (2016). The state of legislation and policy protecting Australia’s mangrove and salt marsh and their ecosystem services. Marine Policy 72, 139–155.
| The state of legislation and policy protecting Australia’s mangrove and salt marsh and their ecosystem services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saintilan, N., and Rogers, K. (2015). Woody plant encroachment of grasslands: a comparison of terrestrial and wetland settings. New Phytologist 205, 1062–1070.
| Woody plant encroachment of grasslands: a comparison of terrestrial and wetland settings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saintilan, N., Wilson, N. C., Rogers, K., Rajkaran, A., and Krauss, K. W. (2014). Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Global Change Biology 20, 147–157.
| Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23907934PubMed |
Saintilan, N., Rogers, K., Kelleway, J. J., Ens, E., and Sloane, D. R. (2019). Climate change impacts on the coastal wetlands of Australia. Wetlands 39, 1145–1154.
| Climate change impacts on the coastal wetlands of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saintilan, N., Khan, N. S., Ashe, E., Kelleway, J. J., Rogers, K., Woodroffe, C. D., and Horton, B. P. (2020). Thresholds of mangrove survival under rapid sea level rise. Science 368, 1118–1121.
| Thresholds of mangrove survival under rapid sea level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32499441PubMed |
Saintilan, N., Bowen, S., Maguire, O., Shaeri Karimi, S., Wen, L., Powell, M., Colloff, M. J., Sandi, S. G., Saco, P., and Rodriguez, J. (2021). Resilience of trees and the vulnerability of grasslands to climate change in temperate Australian wetlands. Landscape Ecology 36, 803–814.
| Resilience of trees and the vulnerability of grasslands to climate change in temperate Australian wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sandi, S. G., Saco, P. M., Saintilan, N., Wen, L., Riccardi, G., Kuczera, G., Willgoose, G., and Rodríguez, J. F. (2019). Detecting inundation thresholds for dryland wetland vulnerability. Advances in Water Resources 128, 168–182.
| Detecting inundation thresholds for dryland wetland vulnerability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schuerch, M., Spencer, T., Temmerman, S., Kirwan, M. L., Wolff, C., Lincke, D., McOwen, C. J., Pickering, M. D., Reef, R., Vafeidis, A., Hinkel, J., Nicholls, R. J., and Brown, S. (2018). Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise. Nature 561, 231–234.
| Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30209368PubMed |
Shaeri Karimi, S., Saintilan, N., Wen, L., Cox, J., and Valavi, R. (2021). Influence of inundation characteristics on the distribution of dryland floodplain vegetation communities. Ecological Indicators 124, 107429.
| Influence of inundation characteristics on the distribution of dryland floodplain vegetation communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sims, N. C., Chariton, A., Jin, H., and Colloff, M. J. (2012). A classification of floodplain ecosystems in the Murray-Darling Basin based on changes in flows following water resource development. Wetlands 32, 239–248.
| A classification of floodplain ecosystems in the Murray-Darling Basin based on changes in flows following water resource development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sitch, S., Friedlingstein, P., Gruber, N., Jones, S. D., Murray-Tortarolo, G., Ahlström, A., Doney, S. C., Graven, H., Heinze, C., and Huntingford, C. (2015). Recent trends and drivers of regional sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Biogeosciences 12, 653–679.
| Recent trends and drivers of regional sources and sinks of carbon dioxide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sittaro, F., Paquette, A., Messier, C., and Nock, C. A. (2017). Tree range expansion in eastern North America fails to keep pace with climate warming at northern range limits. Global Change Biology 23, 3292–3301.
| Tree range expansion in eastern North America fails to keep pace with climate warming at northern range limits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28165187PubMed |
Song, X. P., Hansen, M. C., Stehman, S. V., Potapov, P. V., Tyukavina, A., Vermote, E. F., and Townshend, J. R. (2018). Global land change from 1982 to 2016. Nature 560, 639–643.
| Global land change from 1982 to 2016.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30089903PubMed |
Souter, N. J. (2019). The red gum condition index: a multi-variable tree condition index for visually assessed river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) trees. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 143, 67–85.
| The red gum condition index: a multi-variable tree condition index for visually assessed river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) trees.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spencer, S., Monamy, V., and Breitfuss, M. (2006). Saltmarsh as habitat for birds and other vertebrates. In ‘Australian Saltmarsh Ecology’. (Ed. N. Saintilan.) pp 149–165. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)
Stine, M. B., Resler, L. M., and Campbell, J. B. (2011). Ecotone characteristics of a southern Appalachian Mountain wetland. Catena 86, 57–65.
| Ecotone characteristics of a southern Appalachian Mountain wetland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Auken, O. W. (2000). Shrub invasions of North American semiarid grasslands. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31, 197–215.
| Shrub invasions of North American semiarid grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Auken, O. W. (2009). Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands. Journal of Environmental Management 90, 2931–2942.
| Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19501450PubMed |
van Dijk, A. I. J. M., Beck, H. E., Crosbie, R. S., de Jeu, R. A., Liu, Y. Y., Podger, G. M., Timbal, B., and Viney, N. R. (2013). The Millennium Drought in southeast Australia (2001–2009): natural and human causes and implications for water resources, ecosystems, economy, and society. Water Resources Research 49, 1040–1057.
| The Millennium Drought in southeast Australia (2001–2009): natural and human causes and implications for water resources, ecosystems, economy, and society.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vivian, L., Ward, K., Marshall, D. J., and Godfree, R. C. (2015). Pseudoraphis spinescens (Poaceae) grasslands at Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia: current distribution and implications for floodplain conservation. Australian Journal of Botany 63, 526–540.
| Pseudoraphis spinescens (Poaceae) grasslands at Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia: current distribution and implications for floodplain conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wang, L., Tian, F., Wang, Y., Wu, Z., Schurgers, G., and Fensholt, R. (2018). Acceleration of global vegetation greenup from combined effects of climate change and human land management. Global Change Biology 24, 5484–5499.
| Acceleration of global vegetation greenup from combined effects of climate change and human land management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29963745PubMed |
Wassens, S., Ning, N., Hardwick, L., Bino, G., and Maguire, J. (2017). Long-term changes in freshwater aquatic plant communities following extreme drought. Hydrobiologia 799, 233–247.
| Long-term changes in freshwater aquatic plant communities following extreme drought.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wen, L., and Saintilan, N. (2015). Climate phase drives canopy condition in a large semi-arid floodplain forest. Journal of Environmental Management 159, 279–287.
| Climate phase drives canopy condition in a large semi-arid floodplain forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26027753PubMed |
Wen, L., Yang, X., and Saintilan, N. (2012). Local climate determines the NDVI-based primary productivity and flooding creates heterogeneity in semi-arid floodplain ecosystem. Ecological Modelling 242, 116–126.
| Local climate determines the NDVI-based primary productivity and flooding creates heterogeneity in semi-arid floodplain ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wigley, B. J., Bond, W. J., and Hoffman, M. T. (2010). Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers? Global Change Biology 16, 964–976.
| Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
