Rainforest persistence and recruitment after Australia’s 2019–2020 fires in subtropical, temperate, dry and littoral rainforests
Andrew G. Baker
A * , Claudia Catterall A and Matthew Wiseman B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Forest Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia.
B NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, 136 Summerland Way, Kyogle, NSW 2474, Australia.
Australian Journal of Botany 70(3) 189-203 https://doi.org/10.1071/BT21091
Submitted: 28 July 2021 Accepted: 22 February 2022 Published: 28 March 2022
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Interactions between rainforest plants and fire occur when fires encroach into rainforest and when rainforest pioneers colonise fire-prone open forests. Although numerous studies show that many rainforest plants survive fire by resprouting and postfire seedling recruitment, data is lacking for several major Australian rainforest types. In this study, we examine fire-resilience traits among 228 taxa of woody rainforest plants in four rainforest classes (subtropical, warm temperate, dry and littoral rainforest) less than 1 year after being burnt in the extensive wildfires of 2019–2020. Among taxa with ≥ 5 records of complete crown scorch (126), resprouting occurred in 63% of taxa overall and 61% of late-successional taxa. Fire-cued seedling recruitment occurred in 62% of taxa overall and 48% of late-successional taxa. Surprisingly, species richness of woody plants increased 22% postfire due to high rates of persistence and emergence of new taxa into standing plant populations as seedlings. Stem density increased ∼400% postfire due to high rates of resprouting and reproduction through suckering and seedling recruitment, although there was a significant redistribution from medium to smaller stem size classes. Larger stems (>10 cm diameter at breast height) were not significantly reduced in rainforest stands. High resprouting rates in small rainforest plants (1 cm diameter at breast height, 1 m tall) suggests rapid attainment of resprouting capacity. Our findings demonstrate that most subtropical, dry, warm temperate and littoral rainforest plant taxa are resilient to rare fires, and suggest that rainforest plants that invade rarely-burnt open forests may quickly become resistant to removal by infrequent fires, with potential for increased populations through fire-enhanced seedling germination.
Keywords: basal resprouting, fire, fire-cued seeding, persistence niche, plant resilience traits, rainforest, resilience, succession, woody encroachment.
References
Alexander HD, Arthur MA (2014) Increasing red maple leaf litter alters decomposition rates and nitrogen cycling in historically oak-dominated forests of the eastern US. Ecosystems 17, 1371–1383.| Increasing red maple leaf litter alters decomposition rates and nitrogen cycling in historically oak-dominated forests of the eastern US.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker AG, Catterall C, Benkendorff K, Fensham RJ (2020a) Rainforest expansion reduces understorey plant diversity and density in open forest of eastern Australia: understorey response to rainforest expansion. Austral Ecology 45, 557–571.
| Rainforest expansion reduces understorey plant diversity and density in open forest of eastern Australia: understorey response to rainforest expansion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker AG, Catterall C, Benkendorff K, Law B (2020b) No room to move: bat response to rainforest expansion into long-unburnt eucalypt forest. Pacific Conservation Biology 27, 13–26.
| No room to move: bat response to rainforest expansion into long-unburnt eucalypt forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker AG, Catterall C, Benkendorff K (2021) Invading rain forest pioneers initiate positive fire suppression feedbacks that reinforce shifts from open to closed forest in eastern Australia. Journal of Vegetation Science 32, e13102
| Invading rain forest pioneers initiate positive fire suppression feedbacks that reinforce shifts from open to closed forest in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barker MJ (1994) The effects of fire on Tasmania’s west coast lowland rainforest. MSc Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas., Australia.
Bond WJ (2019) ‘Open ecosystems: ecology and evolution beyond the forest edge’, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK)
Bond WJ, Midgley JJ (2001) Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16, 45–51.
| Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bond W, Van Wilgen B (1996) ‘Fire and plants.’ Population and community biology series 14. (Springer: Netherlands)
Bowman DMJS (1991) Recovery of some northern Australian monsoon forest tree species following fire. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 101, 21–25.
Bowman DMJS (2000) ‘Australian rainforests: islands of green in a land of fire’, (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Bowman DMJS, Murphy BP, Banfai DS (2010) Has global environmental change caused monsoon rainforests to expand in the Australian monsoon tropics? Landscape Ecology 25, 1247–1260.
| Has global environmental change caused monsoon rainforests to expand in the Australian monsoon tropics?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA (2010) A biogeographic model of fire regimes in Australia: current and future implications: a biogeographic model of fire in Australia. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19, 145–158.
| A biogeographic model of fire regimes in Australia: current and future implications: a biogeographic model of fire in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA (2016) Report on issues relevant to prescribed burning in the Nightcap National Park. Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
Campbell ML, Clarke PJ (2006) Response of montane wet sclerophyll forest understorey species to fire: evidence from high and low intensity fires. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 127, 63 https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=044135229933707;res=E-LIBRARY
Campbell ML, Clarke PJ, Keith DA (2012) Seed traits and seed bank longevity of wet sclerophyll forest shrubs. Australian Journal of Botany 60, 96
| Seed traits and seed bank longevity of wet sclerophyll forest shrubs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Campbell ML, Keith DA, Clarke PJ (2016) Regulation of seedling recruitment and survival in diverse ecotonal temperate forest understories. Plant Ecology 217, 801–816.
| Regulation of seedling recruitment and survival in diverse ecotonal temperate forest understories.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Canadell JG, Meyer CP, Cook GD, Dowdy A, Briggs PR, Knauer J, Pepler A, Haverd V (2021) Multi-decadal increase of forest burned area in Australia is linked to climate change. Nature Communications 12, 6921
| Multi-decadal increase of forest burned area in Australia is linked to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 34836974PubMed |
Catterall C, Harrison DA (2006) ‘Rainforest restoration activities in Australia’s tropics and subtropics’, (Rainforest Cooperative Research Centre: Cairns, Qld)
Chapman A, Harrington GN (1997) Responses by birds to fire regime and vegetation at the wet sclerophyll/tropical rainforest boundary. Pacific Conservation Biology 3, 213–220.
| Responses by birds to fire regime and vegetation at the wet sclerophyll/tropical rainforest boundary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke H, Evans JP (2019) Exploring the future change space for fire weather in southeast Australia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 136, 513–527.
| Exploring the future change space for fire weather in southeast Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke HG, Smith PL, Pitman AJ (2011) Regional signatures of future fire weather over eastern Australia from global climate models. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 550–562.
| Regional signatures of future fire weather over eastern Australia from global climate models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, Midgley JJ, Lamont BB, Ojeda F, Burrows GE, Enright NJ, Knox KJE (2013) Resprouting as a key functional trait: how buds, protection and resources drive persistence after fire. New Phytologist 197, 19–35.
| Resprouting as a key functional trait: how buds, protection and resources drive persistence after fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke PJ, Knox KJE, Bradstock RA, Munoz-Robles C, Kumar L (2014) Vegetation, terrain and fire history shape the impact of extreme weather on fire severity and ecosystem response. Journal of Vegetation Science 25, 1033–1044.
| Vegetation, terrain and fire history shape the impact of extreme weather on fire severity and ecosystem response.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, Murphy BP, Russell-Smith J, Nano CEM, Bradstock R, Enright NJ, Fontaine JB, Gosper CR, Radford I, Midgley JJ, Gunton RM (2015) A synthesis of postfire recovery traits of woody plants in Australian ecosystems. Science of The Total Environment 534, 31–42.
| A synthesis of postfire recovery traits of woody plants in Australian ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Collins L, Bennett AF, Leonard SWJ, Penman TD (2019) Wildfire refugia in forests: severe fire weather and drought mute the influence of topography and fuel age. Global Change Biology 25, 3829–3843.
| Wildfire refugia in forests: severe fire weather and drought mute the influence of topography and fuel age.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31215102PubMed |
Cruz MG, McCaw WL, Anderson WR, Gould JS (2013) Fire behaviour modelling in semi-arid mallee-heath shrublands of southern Australia. Environmental Modelling & Software 40, 21–34.
| Fire behaviour modelling in semi-arid mallee-heath shrublands of southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
DPIE (2020) ‘Google Earth Engine Burnt Area Map (GEEBAM)’, (NSW Department of Planning Infrastructure and Environment: Sydney) Available at https://datasets.seed.nsw.gov.au/dataset/google-earth-engine-burnt-area-map-geebam.
Fensham RJ, Fairfax RJ, Butler DW, Bowman DMJS (2003) Effects of fire and drought in a tropical eucalypt savanna colonized by rain forest. Journal of Biogeography 30, 1405–1414.
| Effects of fire and drought in a tropical eucalypt savanna colonized by rain forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fletcher M-S, Hall T, Alexandra AN (2021) The loss of an indigenous constructed landscape following British invasion of Australia: an insight into the deep human imprint on the Australian landscape. Ambio 50, 138–149.
| The loss of an indigenous constructed landscape following British invasion of Australia: an insight into the deep human imprint on the Australian landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32378038PubMed |
Floyd AG (1990) ‘Australian rainforests in New South Wales’, (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Freebody K (2007) Rainforest revegetation in the uplands of the Australian Wet Tropics: the Eacham Shire experience with planting models, outcomes and monitoring issues. Ecological Management & Restoration 8, 140–143.
| Rainforest revegetation in the uplands of the Australian Wet Tropics: the Eacham Shire experience with planting models, outcomes and monitoring issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gilbert JM (1959) Forest succession in the Florentine Valley, Tasmania. In ‘Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania’. vol. 93, pp. 129–152.
Gill AM, Bradstock RA (1992) A national register for the fire responses of plant species. Cunninghamia 2, 653–660. https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/pub?list=BRO&pid=procite:0d693cc0-5963-4818-a4ce-651aa6dbebc1
Green PT, Harms KE, Connell JH (2014) Nonrandom, diversifying processes are disproportionately strong in the smallest size classes of a tropical forest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111, 18649–18654.
| Nonrandom, diversifying processes are disproportionately strong in the smallest size classes of a tropical forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25512498PubMed |
Hill RS, Read J (1984) Post-fire regeneration of rainforest and mixed forest in Western Tasmania. Australian Journal of Botany 32, 481
| Post-fire regeneration of rainforest and mixed forest in Western Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hines F, Fire and Adaptive Management Branch Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment Victoria (2010) ‘Overall fuel hazard assessment guide.’ (Fire Management Branch, Dept of Natural Resources and Environment: East Melbourne, Vic, Australia)
Hoffmann WA (1998) Post-burn reproduction of woody plants in a neotropical savanna: the relative importance of sexual and vegetative reproduction. Journal of Applied Ecology 35, 422–433.
| Post-burn reproduction of woody plants in a neotropical savanna: the relative importance of sexual and vegetative reproduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann WA, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Rossatto DR, Silva LCR, Lau OL, Haridasan M, Franco AC (2012a) Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes. Ecology Letters 15, 759–768.
| Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22554474PubMed |
Hoffmann WA, Jaconis SY, Mckinley KL, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Franco AC (2012b) Fuels or microclimate? Understanding the drivers of fire feedbacks at savanna-forest boundaries. Austral Ecology 37, 634–643.
| Fuels or microclimate? Understanding the drivers of fire feedbacks at savanna-forest boundaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jaureguiberry P, Cuchietti A, Gorné LD, Bertone GA, Díaz S (2020) Post-fire resprouting capacity of seasonally dry forest species – two quantitative indices. Forest Ecology and Management 473, 118267
| Post-fire resprouting capacity of seasonally dry forest species – two quantitative indices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kauffman JB (1991) Survival by sprouting following fire in tropical forests of the eastern Amazon. Biotropica 23, 219–224.
| Survival by sprouting following fire in tropical forests of the eastern Amazon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keenan RJ (2015) Climate change impacts and adaptation in forest management: a review. Annals of Forest Science 72, 145–167.
| Climate change impacts and adaptation in forest management: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keith DA (2004) ‘Ocean shores to desert dunes: the native vegetation of New South Wales and the ACT,’ (Department of Environment and Conservation NSW: Hurstville, NSW, Australia)
Kenny B, Sutherland E, Tasker E, Bradstock R (2004) ‘Guidelines for ecologically sustainable fire management.’ (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service: Hurstville, NSW, Australia)
King KJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Chapman J, Marsden-Smedley JB (2008) The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 421–430.
| The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kooyman RM (1996) ‘Growing rainforest: rainforest restoration and regeneration: recommendations for the humid sub-tropical region of northern New South Wales and south east Queensland.’ (Greening Australia: Brisbane, Qld, Australia)
Laurance WF (1997) A distributional survey and habitat model for the endangered northern bettong Bettongia tropica in tropical Queensland. Biological Conservation 82, 47–60.
| A distributional survey and habitat model for the endangered northern bettong Bettongia tropica in tropical Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lewis T, Reif M, Prendergast E, Tran C (2012) The effect of long-term repeated burning and fire exclusion on above- and below-ground Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis) forest vegetation assemblages. Austral Ecology 37, 767–778.
| The effect of long-term repeated burning and fire exclusion on above- and below-ground Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis) forest vegetation assemblages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lim WH, Roderick ML (2009) ‘An atlas of the global water cycle.’ (ANU Press).
| Crossref |
Little JK, Prior LD, Williamson GJ, Williams SE, Bowman DMJS (2012) Fire weather risk differs across rain forest-savanna boundaries in the humid tropics of north-eastern Australia. Austral Ecology 37, 915–925.
| Fire weather risk differs across rain forest-savanna boundaries in the humid tropics of north-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lynch AJJ, Neldner VJ (2000) Problems of placing boundaries on ecological continua – options for a workable national rainforest definition in Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 48, 511
| Problems of placing boundaries on ecological continua – options for a workable national rainforest definition in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marrinan MJ, Edwards W, Landsberg J (2005) Resprouting of saplings following a tropical rainforest fire in north-east Queensland, Australia. Austral Ecology 30, 817–826.
| Resprouting of saplings following a tropical rainforest fire in north-east Queensland, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nicholson N, Nicholson H, Murray A, McKinley A, Stewart B, Wiseman M (2020) Response of rainforest plants to the 2019–2020 bushfires: a case study from the Gondwanan rainforests of Richmond River Area. Unpublished report to the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. Landmark Ecological Services.
Noble IR, Slatyer RO (1980) The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances. Vegetatio 43, 5–21.
| The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nolan RH, Boer MM, Collins L, de Dios VR, Clarke H, Jenkins M, Kenny B, Bradstock RA (2020) Causes and consequences of eastern Australia’s 2019–20 season of mega-fires. Global Change Biology 26, 1039–1041.
| Causes and consequences of eastern Australia’s 2019–20 season of mega-fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31916352PubMed |
OEH (2014) ‘NSW flora fire response database (version 2.1)’, (NSW Office of Environment & Heritage: Hurstville, NSW, Australia)
Ondei S, Prior LD, Williamson GJ, Vigilante T, Bowman DMJS (2017) Water, land, fire, and forest: multi-scale determinants of rainforests in the Australian monsoon tropics. Ecology and Evolution 7, 1592–1604.
| Water, land, fire, and forest: multi-scale determinants of rainforests in the Australian monsoon tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28261468PubMed |
Parkes T, Delaney M, Dunphy M, et al. (2012) Big scrub: a cleared landscape in transition back to forest? Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 212–223.
| Big scrub: a cleared landscape in transition back to forest?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pausas JG, Bradstock RA (2007) Fire persistence traits of plants along a productivity and disturbance gradient in mediterranean shrublands of south-east Australia. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16, 330–340.
| Fire persistence traits of plants along a productivity and disturbance gradient in mediterranean shrublands of south-east Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pausas JG, Bradstock RA, Keith DA, Keeley JE (2004) Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems. Ecology 85, 1085–1100.
| Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pohlert T (2018) PMCMR: calculate pairwise multiple comparisons of mean rank sums. Available at https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/PMCMR/. [Accessed 28 March 2019]
RBGT (2021) PlantNET (The NSW Plant Information Network System). Royal Botanical Gardens Trust, Sydney. Available at http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au.
Rose S, Fairweather PG (1997) Changes in floristic composition of urban bushland invaded by Pittosporum undulatum in Northern Sydney, Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 123
| Changes in floristic composition of urban bushland invaded by Pittosporum undulatum in Northern Sydney, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Russell-Smith J, Stanton PJ, Whitehead PJ, Edwards A (2004) Rain forest invasion of eucalypt-dominated woodland savanna, Iron Range, north-eastern Australia: I. Successional processes. Journal of Biogeography 31, 1293–1303.
| Rain forest invasion of eucalypt-dominated woodland savanna, Iron Range, north-eastern Australia: I. Successional processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simkin R, Baker PJ (2008) Disturbance history and stand dynamics in tall open forest and riparian rainforest in the Central Highlands of Victoria. Austral Ecology 33, 747–760.
| Disturbance history and stand dynamics in tall open forest and riparian rainforest in the Central Highlands of Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stanton P, Stanton D, Stott M, Parsons M (2014) Fire exclusion and the changing landscape of Queensland’s Wet Tropics Bioregion 1. The extent and pattern of transition. Australian Forestry 77, 51–57.
| Fire exclusion and the changing landscape of Queensland’s Wet Tropics Bioregion 1. The extent and pattern of transition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tasker E, Rennison B, Watson P, Baker L (2017) Vegetation change associated with reduced fire frequency in Border Ranges: loss of grassy forests and associated endangered fauna. In ‘2017 Bushfire Conference’, Sydney. (Nature Conservation Council of NSW: Sydney)
Tolsma A, Hale R, Sutter G, Kohout M (2019) Post-fire dynamics of Cool Temperate Rainforest in the O’Shannassy Catchment. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 298. Department of Environment, Heidelberg, Vic, Australia.
Turner J (1984) Radiocarbon dating of wood and charcoal in an Australian forest ecosystem. Australian Forestry 47, 79–83.
| Radiocarbon dating of wood and charcoal in an Australian forest ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Unwin GL (1983) Dynamics of the rainforest: eucalpyt forest boundary in the Herberton Highland North Queenland. MSc Thesis, James Cook University of North Queensland, Cairns, Qld., Australia.
Vesk PA (2006) Plant size and resprouting ability: trading tolerance and avoidance of damage? Journal of Ecology 94, 1027–1034.
| Plant size and resprouting ability: trading tolerance and avoidance of damage?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wigley BJ, Bond WJ, Hoffman MT (2010) Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers? Global Change Biology 16, 964–976.
| Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Willett KM, Gillett NP, Jones PD, Thorne PW (2007) Attribution of observed surface humidity changes to human influence. Nature 449, 710–712.
| Attribution of observed surface humidity changes to human influence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17928858PubMed |
Williams PR (2000) Fire-stimulated rainforest seedling recruitment and vegetative regeneration in a densely grassed wet sclerophyll forest of north-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 48, 651
| Fire-stimulated rainforest seedling recruitment and vegetative regeneration in a densely grassed wet sclerophyll forest of north-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams PR, Parsons M, Jensen R, Tran C (2012) Mechanisms of rainforest persistence and recruitment in frequently burnt wet tropical eucalypt forests. Austral Ecology 37, 268–275.
| Mechanisms of rainforest persistence and recruitment in frequently burnt wet tropical eucalypt forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woinarski JCZ, Risler J, Kean L (2004) Response of vegetation and vertebrate fauna to 23 years of fire exclusion in a tropical Eucalyptus open forest, Northern Territory, Australia. Austral Ecology 29, 156–176.
| Response of vegetation and vertebrate fauna to 23 years of fire exclusion in a tropical Eucalyptus open forest, Northern Territory, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wood SW, Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS (2011) Firescape ecology: how topography determines the contrasting distribution of fire and rain forest in the south-west of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. Journal of Biogeography 38, 1807–1820.
| Firescape ecology: how topography determines the contrasting distribution of fire and rain forest in the south-west of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
