Set free: an evaluation of two break-away mechanisms for tracking collars
Leticia F. Povh![https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0306-0191](/media/client/orcid_16x16.png)
![https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0626-3851](/media/client/orcid_16x16.png)
A Murdoch University, Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Harry Butler Institute, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
B Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Australia II Drive, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
Wildlife Research 50(10) 782-791 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR21176
Submitted: 7 December 2021 Accepted: 2 October 2022 Published: 4 November 2022
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Context: One of the welfare and ethical challenges with tracking animals is ensuring that the tracking device is removed from the animal at the conclusion of the study. However, for animals that are not readily re-trapped, the impact of devices and alternatives for their retrieval are rarely examined.
Aims: We compared the retention time of two types of break-away mechanisms for tracking collars deployed on mainland quokkas (Setonix brachyurus).
Methods: We tested a cotton thread (CT) weak-link, where the collar was cut and then a looping stitch was made to link the cut ends of the collar. We compared collar retention time of this simple mechanism with a lightweight automatic micro timed-release device (mTRD, Sirtrack).
Key results: Of the 17 radio collars with CT, the fates of 15 collars contributed to retention time data. Seven collars released: six fell off and were recovered 148 ± 64 (s.d.) days after deployment and another collar fell off 136 days after deployment but could not be recovered. Eight quokkas were recaptured (161 ± 109 days after deployment) and collars removed. Two quokkas were each tracked for over a year but then disappeared. Of the 11 GPS collars fitted with a mTRD, the fates of nine collars contributed to retention time data. Two released early at 16 and 29 days and were recovered. Seven fell off around the scheduled release date. There were two unknown fates. Re-trapped collared quokkas did not show evidence of injuries from wearing collars or any significant change in body mass (P = 0.442).
Conclusions: The timing of release for the CT weak-link was unpredictable, with a third of the collars releasing within 1 year and 7/15 lasting only about 6 months. Over two-thirds (7/9) of the GPS collars fitted with timed-release device released on schedule while 2/9 released early.
Implications: Tracking devices equipped with break-away mechanisms are essential for safeguarding animal welfare outcomes for species where the chance of recapture is not certain. For both break-away types examined in this study, the release timing was unpredictable and poor collar recovery rates show the importance of adding camera traps to monitor the outcomes for collared animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, bio-logging, drop-off, environmentally-degradable link, radio collar, tracking device, TRD, weak-link.
References
Bain, K, Wayne, A, and Bencini, R (2016). Prescribed burning as a conservation tool for management of habitat for threatened species: the quokka, Setonix brachyurus, in the southern forests of Western Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 608–617.| Prescribed burning as a conservation tool for management of habitat for threatened species: the quokka, Setonix brachyurus, in the southern forests of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bain, K, Wayne, AF, and Bencini, R (2020). Spatial ecology of the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) in the southern forests of Western Australia: implications for the maintenance, or restoration, of functional metapopulations. Australian Mammalogy 42, 38–47.
| Spatial ecology of the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) in the southern forests of Western Australia: implications for the maintenance, or restoration, of functional metapopulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barron, DG, Brawn, JD, and Weatherhead, PJ (2010). Meta-analysis of transmitter effects on avian behaviour and ecology: meta-analysis of avian transmitter effects. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 1, 180–187.
| Meta-analysis of transmitter effects on avian behaviour and ecology: meta-analysis of avian transmitter effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Batsleer, F, Bonte, D, Dekeukeleire, D, Goossens, S, Poelmans, W, Van der Cruyssen, E, Maes, D, and Vandegehuchte, ML (2020). The neglected impact of tracking devices on terrestrial arthropods. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 11, 350–361.
| The neglected impact of tracking devices on terrestrial arthropods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Berg, O, Arnemo, J, Skei, J, Kraabøl, M, Dervo, B, and Dolmen, D (2010). A comparison of external and internal attachments of radio transmitters on adult crested newts Triturus cristatus. Amphibia-Reptilia 31, 229–237.
| A comparison of external and internal attachments of radio transmitters on adult crested newts Triturus cristatus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brooks, C, Bonyongo, C, and Harris, S (2008). Effects of global positioning system collar weight on zebra behavior and location error. Journal of Wildlife Management 72, 527–534.
| Effects of global positioning system collar weight on zebra behavior and location error.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Browning, E, Bolton, M, Owen, E, Shoji, A, Guilford, T, Freeman, R, and McPherson, J (2018). Predicting animal behaviour using deep learning: GPS data alone accurately predict diving in seabirds. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9, 681–692.
| Predicting animal behaviour using deep learning: GPS data alone accurately predict diving in seabirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buil, JMM, Peckre, LR, Dörge, M, Fichtel, C, Kappeler, PM, and Scherberger, H (2019). Remotely releasable collar mechanism for medium-sized mammals: an affordable technology to avoid multiple captures. Wildlife Biology 2019, 1–7.
| Remotely releasable collar mechanism for medium-sized mammals: an affordable technology to avoid multiple captures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bunnefeld, N, Börger, L, van Moorter, B, Rolandsen, CM, Dettki, H, Solberg, EJ, and Ericsson, G (2011). A model-driven approach to quantify migration patterns: individual, regional and yearly differences. Journal of Animal Ecology 80, 466–476.
| A model-driven approach to quantify migration patterns: individual, regional and yearly differences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burbidge AA, Woinarski J (2020) Setonix brachyurus. (amended version of 2019 assessment). In ‘The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T20165A166611530’. Available at https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T20165A166611530.en
Casper, RM (2009). Guidelines for the instrumentation of wild birds and mammals. Animal Behaviour 78, 1477–1483.
| Guidelines for the instrumentation of wild birds and mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cawthen, L, and Munks, S (2011). The design and testing of linen thread weak-links in brushtail possum radio-collars. Australian Mammalogy 33, 33–35.
| The design and testing of linen thread weak-links in brushtail possum radio-collars.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cochran, WW, and Lord, RD (1963). A radio-tracking system for wild animals. The Journal of Wildlife Management 27, 9–24.
| A radio-tracking system for wild animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coetsee, A, Harley, D, Lynch, M, Coulson, G, de Milliano, J, Cooper, M, and Groenewegen, R (2016). Radio-transmitter attachment methods for monitoring the endangered eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii). Australian Mammalogy 38, 221–231.
| Radio-transmitter attachment methods for monitoring the endangered eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Collins, GH, Petersen, SL, Carr, CA, and Pielstick, L (2014). Testing VHF/GPS collar design and safety in the study of free-roaming horses. PLoS ONE 9, e103189.
| Testing VHF/GPS collar design and safety in the study of free-roaming horses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cowan, M, Blythman, M, Angus, J, and Gibson, L (2020). Post-release monitoring of western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) relocated from an urban development site. Animals 10, 1914.
| Post-release monitoring of western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) relocated from an urban development site.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dennis, TE, and Shah, SF (2012). Assessing acute effects of trapping, handling, and tagging on the behavior of wildlife using GPS telemetry: a case study of the common brushtail possum. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 15, 189–207.
| Assessing acute effects of trapping, handling, and tagging on the behavior of wildlife using GPS telemetry: a case study of the common brushtail possum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Department of Environment and Conservation (2013) Quokka Setonix brachyurus recovery plan. Wildlife Management Program no. 56. pp. 1–26. Department of Environment and Conservation, Perth, WA.
Dore, KM, Hansen, MF, Klegarth, AR, Fichtel, C, Koch, F, Springer, A, Kappeler, P, Parga, JA, Humle, T, Colin, C, Raballand, E, Huang, Z-P, Qi, X-G, Di Fiore, A, Link, A, Stevenson, PR, Stark, DJ, Tan, N, Gallagher, CA, Anderson, CJ, Campbell, CJ, Kenyon, M, Pebsworth, P, Sprague, D, Jones-Engel, L, and Fuentes, A (2020). Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates. Primates 61, 373–387.
| Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
EPBC (1999) ‘The Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.’ (Australian Government, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Evans, M (1996). Home ranges and movement schedules of sympatric bridled nailtail and black-striped wallabies. Wildlife Research 23, 547–555.
| Home ranges and movement schedules of sympatric bridled nailtail and black-striped wallabies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fitzgibbon, SI, Wilson, RS, and Goldizen, AW (2011). The behavioural ecology and population dynamics of a cryptic ground-dwelling mammal in an urban Australian landscape. Austral Ecology 36, 722–732.
| The behavioural ecology and population dynamics of a cryptic ground-dwelling mammal in an urban Australian landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Foley, CJ, Sillero-Zubiri, C, and Börger, L (2020). Open-source, low-cost modular GPS collars for monitoring and tracking wildlife. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 11, 553–558.
| Open-source, low-cost modular GPS collars for monitoring and tracking wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garshelis, DL, and McLaughlin, CR (1998). Review and evaluation of breakaway devices for bear radiocollars. Ursus 10, 459–465.
Gibson, D, Blomberg, EJ, Patricelli, GL, Krakauer, AH, Atamian, MT, and Sedinger, JS (2013). Effects of radio collars on survival and lekking behavior of male greater sage-grouse. The Condor 115, 769–776.
| Effects of radio collars on survival and lekking behavior of male greater sage-grouse.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hebblewhite, M, and Haydon, DT (2010). Distinguishing technology from biology: a critical review of the use of GPS telemetry data in ecology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365, 2303–2312.
| Distinguishing technology from biology: a critical review of the use of GPS telemetry data in ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hellgren, EC, Carney, DW, Garner, NP, and Vaughan, MR (1988). Use of breakaway cotton spacers on radio collars. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 16, 216–218.
Hooten MB (2017) ‘Animal movement: statistical models for telemetry data.’ (CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton)
Hughey, LF, Hein, AM, Strandburg-Peshkin, A, and Jensen, FH (2018). Challenges and solutions for studying collective animal behaviour in the wild. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, 20170005–20170005.
| Challenges and solutions for studying collective animal behaviour in the wild.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Juarez, CP, Rotundo, MA, Berg, W, and Fernández-Duque, E (2011). Costs and benefits of radio-collaring on the behavior, demography, and conservation of owl monkeys (Aotus azarai) in Formosa, Argentina. International Journal of Primatology 32, 69–82.
| Costs and benefits of radio-collaring on the behavior, demography, and conservation of owl monkeys (Aotus azarai) in Formosa, Argentina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Karl, BJ, and Clout, MN (1987). An improved radio transmitter harness with a weak link to prevent snagging (nuevo arnés para colocar radiotransmisores en aves). Journal of Field Ornithology 58, 73–77.
Katzner, TE, and Arlettaz, R (2020). Evaluating contributions of recent tracking-based animal movement ecology to conservation management. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7, 519.
| Evaluating contributions of recent tracking-based animal movement ecology to conservation management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kays, R, Crofoot, MC, Jetz, W, and Wikelski, M (2015). Terrestrial animal tracking as an eye on life and planet. Science 348, 2478–2478.
| Terrestrial animal tracking as an eye on life and planet.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kenward R (1987) ‘Wildlife radio tagging: equipment, field techniques, and data analysis.’ (Academic Press: London, Orlando)
Kenyon, M, Streicher, U, Pei, KJ-C, Cronin, A, van Dien, N, van Mui, T, and van Hien, L (2015). Experiences using VHF and VHF/GPS-GSM radio-transmitters on released southern yellow-cheeked gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae) in South Vietnam. Vietnamese Journal of Primatology 2, 15–27.
Kesler, DC (2011). Non-permanent radiotelemetry leg harness for small birds. The Journal of Wildlife Management 75, 467–471.
| Non-permanent radiotelemetry leg harness for small birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kitchener DJ (1995) ‘Quokka (Setonix brachyurus).’ (Reed Books: Sydney, Australia)
Kochanny, CO, Delgiudice, GD, and Fieberg, J (2009). Comparing global positioning system and very high frequency telemetry home ranges of white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 73, 779–787.
| Comparing global positioning system and very high frequency telemetry home ranges of white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lanzone, MJ, Miller, TA, Turk, P, Brandes, D, Halverson, C, Maisonneuve, C, Tremblay, J, Cooper, J, O’Malley, K, Brooks, RP, and Katzner, T (2012). Flight responses by a migratory soaring raptor to changing meteorological conditions. Biology Letters 8, 710–713.
| Flight responses by a migratory soaring raptor to changing meteorological conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Main MT (2020) ‘An investigation into the spatial distribution, habitat selection and resource usage of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) inhabiting urban reserves within Perth, Western Australia.’ (Edith Cowan University)
Matthews, A, Green, K, and Kitchener, A (2012). Seasonal and altitudinal influences on the home range and movements of common wombats in the Australian Snowy Mountains. Journal of Zoology 287, 24–33.
| Seasonal and altitudinal influences on the home range and movements of common wombats in the Australian Snowy Mountains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matthews, A, Ruykys, L, Ellis, B, FitzGibbon, SI, Lunney, D, Crowther, MS, Glen, AS, Purcell, B, Moseby, K, Stott, J, Fletcher, D, Wimpenny, C, Allen, BL, Van Bommel, L, Roberts, M, Davies, N, Green, K, Newsome, T, Ballard, G, Fleming, P, Dickman, CR, Eberhart, A, Troy, S, McMahon, C, and Wiggins, N (2013). The success of GPS collar deployments on mammals in Australia. Australian Mammalogy 35, 65–83.
| The success of GPS collar deployments on mammals in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McMahon, LA, Rachlow, JL, Shipley, LA, Forbey, JS, Johnson, TR, and Olsoy, PJ (2017). Evaluation of micro-GPS receivers for tracking small-bodied mammals. PLoS ONE 12, e0173185.
| Evaluation of micro-GPS receivers for tracking small-bodied mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Merino, S, Carter, J, and Thibodeaux, G (2007). Testing tail-mounted transmitters with Myocastor coypus (Nutria). Southeastern Naturalist 6, 159–164.
| Testing tail-mounted transmitters with Myocastor coypus (Nutria).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Merrill, SB, Adams, LG, Nelson, ME, and Mech, LD (1998). Testing releasable GPS radiocollars on wolves and white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26, 830–835.
Portugal, SJ, White, CR, and Börger, L (2018). Miniaturization of biologgers is not alleviating the 5% rule. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9, 1662–1666.
| Miniaturization of biologgers is not alleviating the 5% rule.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Povh, LF, Bencini, R, Chambers, BK, Kreplins, TL, Willers, N, Adams, PJ, Wann, J, Kobryn, HT, and Fleming, PA (2019). Shedding light on a cryptic macropodid: home ranges and habitat preferences of translocated western brush wallabies (Notamacropus irma). Australian Mammalogy 41, 82–91.
| Shedding light on a cryptic macropodid: home ranges and habitat preferences of translocated western brush wallabies (Notamacropus irma).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Purcell BV (2010) Order in the pack: ecology of Canis lupus dingo in the southern Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area. PhD thesis. University of Western Sydney.
Rafiq, K, Appleby, RG, Edgar, JP, Jordan, NR, Dexter, CE, Jones, DN, Blacker, ARF, Cochrane, M, and Shepard, E (2019). OpenDropOff: an open-source, low-cost drop-off unit for animal-borne devices. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 10, 1517–1522.
| OpenDropOff: an open-source, low-cost drop-off unit for animal-borne devices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rayner, K, Sullivan, M, Sims, C, and Cowen, S (2022). A pain in the neck: weak links are not a reliable release mechanism for radio-collars. Australian Mammalogy 44, 117–125.
| A pain in the neck: weak links are not a reliable release mechanism for radio-collars.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Recio, MR, Mathieu, R, Maloney, R, and Seddon, PJ (2011). Cost comparison between GPS- and VHF-based telemetry: case study of feral cats Felis catus in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 35, 114–117.
Robertson, CPJ, and Harris, S (1996). An expandable, detachable radio-collar for juvenile red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Journal of Zoology 239, 382–387.
| An expandable, detachable radio-collar for juvenile red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ruykys, L, Ward, MJ, Taggart, DA, and Breed, WG (2011). Preliminary spatial behaviour of warru (Petrogale lateralis MacDonnell Ranges race) in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Lands, South Australia. Australian Mammalogy 33, 181–188.
| Preliminary spatial behaviour of warru (Petrogale lateralis MacDonnell Ranges race) in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Lands, South Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schladweiler, JL, and Tester, JR (1972). Survival and behavior of hand-reared mallards released in the wild. The Journal of Wildlife Management 36, 1118–1127.
| Survival and behavior of hand-reared mallards released in the wild.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Severson, JP, Coates, PS, Prochazka, BG, Ricca, MA, Casazza, ML, and Delehanty, DJ (2019). Global positioning system tracking devices can decrease Greater Sage-Grouse survival. The Condor 121, duz032.
| Global positioning system tracking devices can decrease Greater Sage-Grouse survival.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sims, C, Rayner, K, Knox, F, and Cowen, S (2021). A trial of transmitter attachment methods for Shark Bay bandicoots (Perameles bougainville). Australian Mammalogy 43, 359–362.
| A trial of transmitter attachment methods for Shark Bay bandicoots (Perameles bougainville).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Soderquist, TR (1993). An expanding break-away radio-collar for small mammals. Wildlife Research 20, 383–385.
| An expanding break-away radio-collar for small mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spencer, PBS, Bain, K, Hayward, MW, Hillyer, M, and Friend, JAT (2019). Persistence of remnant patches and genetic loss at the distribution periphery in island and mainland populations of the quokka. Australian Journal of Zoology 67, 38–50.
| Persistence of remnant patches and genetic loss at the distribution periphery in island and mainland populations of the quokka.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Storm, GL (1972). Daytime retreats and movements of skunks on farmlands in Illinois. The Journal of Wildlife Management 36, 31–45.
| Daytime retreats and movements of skunks on farmlands in Illinois.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Strathearn, SM, Lotimer, JS, Kolenosky, GB, and Lintack, WM (1984). An expanding break-away radio collar for black bear. The Journal of Wildlife Management 48, 939–942.
| An expanding break-away radio collar for black bear.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thalmann, S (2013). Evaluation of a degradable time-release mechanism for telemetry collars. Australian Mammalogy 35, 241–244.
| Evaluation of a degradable time-release mechanism for telemetry collars.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Therneau TM (2021) A package for survival analysis in R. R package 3.2-13. Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=survival
White GC, Garrott RA (1990) ‘Analysis of wildlife radio-tracking data.’ (Academic Press: San Diego)
Wilson, RP, Kreye, JM, Lucke, K, and Urquhart, H (2004). Antennae on transmitters on penguins: balancing energy budgets on the high wire. Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 2649–2662.
| Antennae on transmitters on penguins: balancing energy budgets on the high wire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xiong, W, Liang, H, Yu, X, Cong, L, and Zhang, Z (2009). Food limitation and low-density populations of sympatric hamster species in North China. Contributions to Zoology 78, 65–75.
| Food limitation and low-density populations of sympatric hamster species in North China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |