Spatially structured brown-headed cowbird control measures and their effects on Kirtland’s warbler long-term population sustainability
Eric L. Margenau
A , Nathan W. Cooper B C * , Donald J. Brown D E F , Deahn M. Donner A , Peter P. Marra B C and Pat Ryan G
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, 5985 Highway K, Rhinelander, WI, USA.
B Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, PO Box 37012 MRC 5503, Washington, DC, USA.
C Department of Biology, McCourt School of Public Policy, Georgetown University, 37th and O Streets NW, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
D School of Natural Resources, West Virginia University, 322 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV, USA.
E USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, PO Box 404, Parsons, WV, USA.
F USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 42218 NE Yale Bridge Road, Amboy, WA, USA.
G USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, 1865 O’Rourke Boulevard #C, Gaylord, MI, USA.
Wildlife Research 50(10) 771-781 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR22037
Submitted: 3 March 2022 Accepted: 13 September 2022 Published: 4 November 2022
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing
Abstract
Context: Brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater), through brood parasitism, can exert extrinsic population growth pressures on North American songbirds. Cowbird removal programs may reduce parasitism rates on host species but can be expensive and difficult to implement throughout a host species’ breeding range.
Aim: We estimated cowbird abundance and nest parasitism rates within Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii) primary breeding range in Michigan, USA, and determined the maximum sustainable parasitism rate for Kirtland’s warblers under several spatially structured cowbird removal designs.
Methods: We conducted point counts to estimate cowbird abundance and monitored nests to quantify nest parasitism rates during 2019–2021. We used the modelling software STELLA to determine the maximum sustainable parasitism rate for Kirtland’s warblers under different spatially structured cowbird removal scenarios (complete, core-only, and no removal).
Key results: Cowbird abundance and parasitism rates remained low following cowbird trap closures in 2018. In the simulation study, complete removal was the most robust scenario with no replications having <1000 Kirtland’s warbler males. The core-only removal scenario had a substantially higher sustainable parasitism rate in the peripheral breeding area than the no removal scenario. Assumed hatch-year dispersal distance had the greatest impact on the maximum sustainable parasitism rate in the core-only scenario.
Conclusions: Low cowbird abundance and nest parasitism following suspension of cowbird removal efforts showed resuming the removal program may not be required in the short-term. If cowbird abundance increases, however, adaptive cowbird removal programs can be used to sustain Kirtland’s warbler populations long-term.
Implications: Our results indicate that incorporating spatial structure of host species’ habitat into designing cowbird removal programs may minimise costs of cowbird management while sustaining populations of Kirtland’s warbler and possibly other host species that are affected by brood parasitism.
Keywords: adaptive management, brood parasitism, brown-headed cowbird, conservation reliance, cowbird removal, Kirtland’s warbler, Setophaga kirtlandii, simulation model.
References
Akçakaya, HR (1991). A method for simulating demographic stochasticity. Ecological Modelling 54, 133–136.| A method for simulating demographic stochasticity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Akçakaya HR, Burgmanw MA, Kindvall O, Wood CC, Sjögren-Gulve P, Hatfield JS, McCarthy MA (2004) ‘Species conservation and management: case studies.’ (Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA)
Anich, NM, Trick, JA, Grveles, KM, and Goyette, JL (2011). Characteristics of a red pine plantation occupied by Kirtland’s warblers in Wisconsin. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 123, 199–205.
| Characteristics of a red pine plantation occupied by Kirtland’s warblers in Wisconsin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barabás, L, Gilicze, B, Takasu, F, and Moskát, C (2004). Survival and anti-parasite defense in a host metapopulation under heavy brood parasitism: a source–sink dynamic model. Journal of Ethology 22, 143–151.
| Survival and anti-parasite defense in a host metapopulation under heavy brood parasitism: a source–sink dynamic model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Benson, TJ, Anich, NM, Brown, JD, and Bednarz, JC (2010). Habitat and landscape effects on brood parasitism, nest survival, and fledgling production in Swainson’s warbler. Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 81–93.
| Habitat and landscape effects on brood parasitism, nest survival, and fledgling production in Swainson’s warbler.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bocetti CI (1994) Density, demography, and mating success of Kirtland’s Warblers in managed and natural habitats. Dissertation, The Ohio State University.
Bocetti, CI, Goble, DD, and Scott, JM (2012). Using conservation management agreements to secure postrecovery perpetuation of conservation-reliant species: the Kirtland’s warbler as a case study. BioScience 62, 874–879.
| Using conservation management agreements to secure postrecovery perpetuation of conservation-reliant species: the Kirtland’s warbler as a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brittingham, MC, and Temple, SA (1983). Have cowbirds caused forest songbirds to decline? BioScience 33, 31–35.
| Have cowbirds caused forest songbirds to decline?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, DJ, Ribic, CA, Donner, DM, Nelson, MD, Bocetti, CI, and Deloria-Sheffield, CM (2017). Using a full annual cycle model to evaluate long-term population viability of the conservation-reliant Kirtland’s warbler after successful recovery. Journal of Applied Ecology 54, 439–449.
| Using a full annual cycle model to evaluate long-term population viability of the conservation-reliant Kirtland’s warbler after successful recovery.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, DJ, Donner, DM, Ribic, CA, and Bocetti, CI (2019). Influence of climate change and postdelisting management on long-term population viability of the conservation-reliant Kirtland’s warbler. Ecology and Evolution 9, 10263–10276.
| Influence of climate change and postdelisting management on long-term population viability of the conservation-reliant Kirtland’s warbler.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buech, RR (1980). Vegetation of a Kirtland’s warbler breeding area and 10 nest sites. The Jack Pine Warbler 58, 58–72.
Byelich J, Irvine GW, Johnson NI, Mayfield J, DeCapita ME, Radtke RE, Jones WR, Mahalak WJ (1985) ‘Updated Kirtland’s warbler recovery plan.’ (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Twin Cities, MN, USA)
Chace, JF, Farmer, C, Winfree, R, Curson, DR, Jensen, WE, Goguen, CB, and Robinson, SK (2005). Cowbird (Molothrus spp.) ecology: A review of factors influencing distribution and abundance of cowbirds across spatial scales. Ornithological Monographs 57, 45–70.
| Cowbird (Molothrus spp.) ecology: A review of factors influencing distribution and abundance of cowbirds across spatial scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cooper, NW, and Marra, PP (2020). Hidden long-distance movements by a migratory bird. Current Biology 30, 4056–4062.
| Hidden long-distance movements by a migratory bird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cooper, NW, Murphy, MT, Redmond, LJ, and Dolan, AC (2009). Density-dependent age at first reproduction in the eastern kingbird. Oikos 118, 413–419.
| Density-dependent age at first reproduction in the eastern kingbird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cooper, NW, Hallworth, MT, and Marra, PP (2017). Light-level geolocation reveals wintering distribution, migration routes, and primary stopover locations of an endangered long-distance migratory songbird. Journal of Avian Biology 48, 209–219.
| Light-level geolocation reveals wintering distribution, migration routes, and primary stopover locations of an endangered long-distance migratory songbird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cooper, NW, Rushing, CS, and Marra, PP (2019). Reducing the conservation reliance of the endangered Kirtland’s warbler through adaptive management. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83, 1297–1305.
| Reducing the conservation reliance of the endangered Kirtland’s warbler through adaptive management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cox, WA, Thompson, FR, Root, B, and Faaborg, J (2012). Declining brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) populations are associated with landscape-specific reductions in brood parasitism and increases in songbird productivity. PLoS ONE 7, e47591.
| Declining brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) populations are associated with landscape-specific reductions in brood parasitism and increases in songbird productivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Donner, DM, Probst, JR, and Ribic, CA (2008). Influence of habitat amount, arrangement, and use on population trend estimates of male Kirtland’s warblers. Landscape Ecology 23, 467–480.
| Influence of habitat amount, arrangement, and use on population trend estimates of male Kirtland’s warblers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Donner, DM, Brown, DJ, Ribic, CA, Nelson, M, and Greco, T (2018). Managing forest habitat for conservation-reliant species in a changing climate: the case of the endangered Kirtland’s Warbler. Forest Ecology and Management 430, 265–279.
| Managing forest habitat for conservation-reliant species in a changing climate: the case of the endangered Kirtland’s Warbler.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eckrich, GH, Koloszar, TE, and Goering, MD (1999). Effective landscape management of brown-headed cowbirds at Fort Hood, Texas. Studies in Avian Biology 18, 267–274.
Hahn, DC, and Hatfield, JS (1995). Parasitism at the landscape scale: cowbirds prefer forests. Conservation Biology 9, 1415–1424.
| Parasitism at the landscape scale: cowbirds prefer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Handler S, Duveneck MJ, Iverson L, Peters E, Scheller RM, Wythers KR, Brandt L, Butler P, Janowiak M, Shannon PD, Swanston C, Eagle AC, Cohen JG, Corner R, Reich PB, Baker T, Chhin S, Clark E, Fehringer D, Fosgitt J, Gries J, Hall C, Hall CK, Heyd R, Hoving CL, Ibáñez I, Kuhr D, Matthews S, Muladore I, Nadelhoffer K, Neumann D, Peters M, Prasad A, Sands M, Swaty R, Wonch L, Daley J, Davenport M, Emery MR, Johnson G, Johnson L, Neitzel D, Rissman A, Rittenhouse C, Ziel R (2014) Michigan forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Northwoods Climate Change Response Framework project, General technical report NRS-129. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station.
Hanski, I, and Gyllenberg, M (1993). Two general metapopulation models and the core-satellite species hypothesis. The American Naturalist 142, 17–41.
| Two general metapopulation models and the core-satellite species hypothesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison, S (1991). Local extinction in a metapopulation context: an empirical evaluation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 42, 73–88.
| Local extinction in a metapopulation context: an empirical evaluation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hochachka, WM, Martin, TE, Artman, V, Smith, CR, Hejl, SJ, Andersen, DE, Curson, D, Petit, L, Mathews, N, Donovan, T, Klass, EE, Wood, PB, Manolis, JC, McFarland, KP, Nichols, JV, Bednarz, JC, Evans, DM, Duguay, JP, Garner, S, Tewksbury, J, Purcell, KL, Faaborg, J, Goguenv, CB, Rimmier, C, Dettmers, R, Knutson, M, Collazo, JA, Garner, L, Whitehead, D, and Geupel, G (1999). Scale dependence in the effects of forest coverage on parasitization by brown-headed cowbirds. Studies in Avian Biology 18, 80–88.
Hostetter, NJ, Gardner, B, Sillett, TS, Pollock, KH, and Simons, TR (2019). An integrated model decomposing the components of detection probability and abundance in unmarked populations. Ecosphere 10, e02586.
| An integrated model decomposing the components of detection probability and abundance in unmarked populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hovick, TJ, and Miller, JR (2013). Broad-scale heterogeneity influences nest selection by brown-headed cowbirds. Landscape Ecology 28, 1493–1503.
| Broad-scale heterogeneity influences nest selection by brown-headed cowbirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Howell, CA, Dijak, WD, and Thompson, FR (2007). Landscape context and selection for forest edge by breeding brown-headed cowbirds. Landscape Ecology 22, 273–284.
| Landscape context and selection for forest edge by breeding brown-headed cowbirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Iverson, LR, Prasad, AM, Matthews, SN, and Peters, M (2008). Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. Forest Ecology and Management 254, 390–406.
| Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kelly, ST, and DeCapita, ME (1982). Cowbird control and its effect on Kirtland’s warbler reproductive success. The Wilson Bulletin 94, 363–365.
Kepler, CB, Irvine, GW, DeCapita, ME, and Weinrich, J (1996). The conservation management of Kirtland’s warbler Dendroica kirtlandii. Bird Conservation International 6, 11–22.
| The conservation management of Kirtland’s warbler Dendroica kirtlandii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kostecke RM, Cimprich DA, Summers SG (2010) Partial cessation of cowbird management at Fort Hood, Texas: year five. In ‘Endangered species monitoring and management at Fort Hood, Texas: 2010 annual report’. The Nature Conservancy, Fort Hood, TX, USA.
Lee, AM, Reid, JM, and Beissinger, SR (2017). Modelling effects of nonbreeders on population growth estimates. Journal of Animal Ecology 86, 75–87.
| Modelling effects of nonbreeders on population growth estimates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marra, PP, and Holmes, RT (1997). Avian removal experiments: do they test for habitat saturation or female availability? Ecology 78, 947–952.
| Avian removal experiments: do they test for habitat saturation or female availability?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR), United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and United States Forest Service (2015) ‘Kirtland’s warbler breeding range conservation plan.’ (Michigan Department of Natural Resources)
Newton, I (1992). Experiments on the limitation of bird numbers by territorial behaviour. Biological Reviews 67, 129–173.
| Experiments on the limitation of bird numbers by territorial behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Olah, AM, Ribic, CA, Grveles, K, Warner, S, Lopez, D, and Pidgeon, AM (2022). Kirtland’s Warbler breeding productivity and habitat use in red pine-dominated habitat in Wisconsin, USA. Avian Conservation and Ecology 17, 3.
| Kirtland’s Warbler breeding productivity and habitat use in red pine-dominated habitat in Wisconsin, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paradis, E, Baillie, SR, Sutherland, WJ, and Gregory, RD (1998). Patterns of natal and breeding dispersal in birds. Journal of Animal Ecology 67, 518–536.
| Patterns of natal and breeding dispersal in birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peer, BD, Kus, BE, Whitfield, MJ, Hall, LS, and Rothstein, SI (2020). Management of the brown-headed cowbird: implications for endangered species and agricultural damage mitigation. Human–Wildlife Interactions 14, 461–475.
Penteriani, V, Ferrer, M, and Delgado, MM (2011). Floater strategies and dynamics in birds, and their importance in conservation biology: towards an understanding of nonbreeders in avian populations. Animal Conservation 14, 233–241.
| Floater strategies and dynamics in birds, and their importance in conservation biology: towards an understanding of nonbreeders in avian populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ponchon, A, Grémillet, D, Doligez, B, Chambert, T, Tveraa, T, González-Solís, J, and Boulinier, T (2013). Tracking prospecting movements involved in breeding habitat selection: insights, pitfalls and perspectives. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4, 143–150.
| Tracking prospecting movements involved in breeding habitat selection: insights, pitfalls and perspectives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ponchon, A, Garnier, R, Grémillet, D, and Boulinier, T (2015). Predicting population responses to environmental change: the importance of considering informed dispersal strategies in spatially structured population models. Diversity and Distributions 21, 88–100.
| Predicting population responses to environmental change: the importance of considering informed dispersal strategies in spatially structured population models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Probst, JR (1986). A review of factors limiting the Kirtland’s warbler on its breeding grounds. American Midland Naturalist 116, 87–100.
| A review of factors limiting the Kirtland’s warbler on its breeding grounds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Probst JR (1988) Kirtland’s warbler breeding biology and habitat management. In ‘Integrating forest management for wildlife and fish’. General Technical Report NC-122. (Eds JW Hoekstra, J Capp) pp. 28–35. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
Probst JR, Weinrich J (1989) Predicting Kirtland’s warbler populations by habitat conditions. In ‘At the crossroads-extinction or survival? Proceedings Kirtland’s warbler symposium’. (Ed. KR Ennis) pp. 61–62. (U.S. Forest Service)
Pugh SA (2018) ‘Forests of Michigan, 2017.’ Resource Update FS-153. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station) https://doi.org/10.2737/FS-RU-153
Radabaugh, BE (1974). Kirtland’s warbler and its Bahama wintering grounds. The Wilson Bulletin 86, 374–383.
Robinson SK, Grzybowski JA, Rothstein SI, Brittingham MC, Petit LJ, Thompson FR (1993) Management implications of cowbird parasitism on Neotropical migrant songbirds. Status and management of Neotropical migratory birds, General technical report RM-229. U.S. Forest Service. pp. 93–102.
Robinson, SK, Thompson, FR, Donovan, TM, Whitehead, DR, and Faaborg, J (1995). Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science 267, 1987–1990.
| Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robles, H, and Ciudad, C (2017). Floaters may buffer the extinction risk of small populations: an empirical assessment. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, 20170074.
| Floaters may buffer the extinction risk of small populations: an empirical assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rockwell SM (2013) Carry-over effects from the non-breeding season influence spring arrival dates, reproductive success, and survival in an endangered migratory bird, the Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii). Dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
Rockwell, SM, Bocetti, CI, and Marra, PP (2012). Carry-over effects of winter climate on spring arrival date and reproductive success in an endangered migratory bird, Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii). The Auk 129, 744–752.
| Carry-over effects of winter climate on spring arrival date and reproductive success in an endangered migratory bird, Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rockwell, SM, Wunderle, JM, Sillett, TS, Bocetti, CI, Ewert, DN, Currie, D, White, JD, and Marra, PP (2017). Seasonal survival estimation for a long-distance migratory bird and the influence of winter precipitation. Oecologia 183, 715–726.
| Seasonal survival estimation for a long-distance migratory bird and the influence of winter precipitation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rodewald, AD (2016). Beyond biology: the political and legal implications of “conservation reliance”. Avian Conservation and Ecology 11, 13.
| Beyond biology: the political and legal implications of “conservation reliance”.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rohlf, DJ, Carroll, C, and Hartl, B (2014). Conservation-reliant species: toward a biology-based definition. BioScience 64, 601–611.
| Conservation-reliant species: toward a biology-based definition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothstein, SI, and Peer, BD (2005). Conservation solutions for threatened and endangered cowbird (Molothus spp.) hosts: separating fact from fiction. Ornithological Monographs 2005, 98–114.
| Conservation solutions for threatened and endangered cowbird (Molothus spp.) hosts: separating fact from fiction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothstein, SI, and Robinson, SK (1994). Conservation and coevolutionary implications of brood parasitism by cowbirds. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9, 162–164.
| Conservation and coevolutionary implications of brood parasitism by cowbirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothstein SI, Farmer C, Verner J (2000) The structure and function of cowbird vocalizations and the use of playbacks to enhance cowbird detectability: relations to potential censusing bias. In ‘Ecology and management of cowbirds and their hosts’. (Eds JNM Smith, TL Cook, SI Rothstein, SK Robinson) pp. 69–80. (University of Texas Press: Austin, TX)
Scott, JM, Goble, DD, Haines, AM, Wiens, JA, and Neel, MC (2010). Conservation-reliant species and the future of conservation. Conservation Letters 3, 91–97.
| Conservation-reliant species and the future of conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shake, WF, and Mattsson, JP (1975). Three years of cowbird control: an effort to save the Kirtland’s warbler. Jack-Pine Warbler 53, 48–53.
Stevens MHH (2009) ‘A primer of ecology with R.’ (Springer: New York, NY, USA)
Thompson, FR (1994). Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding brown-headed cowbirds in the midwestern United States. The Auk 111, 979–990.
| Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding brown-headed cowbirds in the midwestern United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2012) ‘Kirtland’s warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii). 5-year review: summary and evaluation.’ (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2018) ‘Draft post-delisting monitoring plan for the Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii).’ (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2019) ‘Final post-delisting monitoring plan for the Kirtland’s warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii).’ (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
Van Dyke, F, Harju, S, Hindy, M, Cannata, N, Schmidt, E, Hillman, E, Sargent, A, and Keas, B (2022). Comparative detection, density, and reproductive performance of Kirtland’s warbler in jack and red pine. The Journal of Wildlife Management 86, e22233.
| Comparative detection, density, and reproductive performance of Kirtland’s warbler in jack and red pine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Walkingshaw LH (1983) ‘Kirtland’s warbler: the natural history of an endangered species.’ (Cranbrook Institute of Science: Bloomfield Hills, MI, USA)
