Leopard (Panthera pardus) density and diet in a forest corridor of Terai: implications for conservation and conflict management
Sagar Raj Kandel A , Babu Ram Lamichhane
B C and Naresh Subedi B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Tribhuvan University, Central Department of Environmental Sciences, Kirtipur 44618, Kathmandu, Nepal.
B National Trust for Nature Conservation, POB 3712, Khumaltar 44700, Lalitpur, Nepal.
C Corresponding author. Email: baburaml@gmail.com
Wildlife Research 47(6) 460-467 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR19126
Submitted: 24 July 2019 Accepted: 15 April 2020 Published: 21 July 2020
Abstract
Context: Increasing forest fragmentation and degradation has forced wildlife to live in close proximity to humans, increasing the chances of human–wildlife conflict. Leopard (Panthera pardus) typifies the problem faced by large carnivores. It is a threatened species with a wide distribution, with a large part of their range outside protected areas, leaving them vulnerable to human–leopard conflict. Understanding their status and diet in such non-protected forests is necessary for their long-term conservation.
Aims: The present study aimed to estimate leopard density and assess their diet in a non-protected forest.
Methods: A camera-trapping survey was carried out in the Kamdi forest corridor outside of protected areas, covering 791.29 km2 in the western part of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) in Nepal. Leopard density was estimated based on the photographs obtained in camera traps, using Bayesian Explicit Capture–recapture (B-SECR) models. Scats of leopards were opportunistically collected (n = 60) and their diet analysed through micro-histological characters of hair remains. The frequency of occurrence and relative biomass of different prey species consumed by leopard was calculated.
Key results: Leopard density was estimated to be 1.50 (± 0.49 s.e.) 100 km−2 in the survey area. Similarly, we identified 13 prey species in the leopard scats. Wild prey contributed the majority (67.8%) of leopard diet, including 23.2% of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and 18.3% of spotted deer (Axis axis). Nearly one-third of leopard diet consists of domestic livestock (cattle, goat, sheep) and dog.
Conclusions: Leopard density was found to be relatively low in the forest corridor compared with protected areas. Nearly one-third of leopard diet from domestic livestock and dogs suggests that human–leopard conflict could be problematic in the survey area.
Implications: Increasing prey density in the forest corridor and improving livestock husbandry in the periphery will contribute to increase leopard density, reduce the human–leopard conflict and enhance the functionality of the corridor.
Additional keywords: density, diet, Kamdi, Nepal, Terai Arc Landscape.
References
Andheria, A., Karanth, K., and Kumar, N. (2007). Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India. Journal of Zoology 273, 169–175.| Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Athreya, V., Odden, M., Linnell, J. D., Krishnaswamy, J., and Karanth, U. (2013). Big cats in our backyards: persistence of large carnivores in a human dominated landscape in India. PLoS One 8, e57872.
| Big cats in our backyards: persistence of large carnivores in a human dominated landscape in India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23483933PubMed |
Athreya, V., Odden, M., Linnell, J. D., Krishnaswamy, J., and Karanth, K. U. (2016). A cat among the dogs: leopard Panthera pardus diet in a human-dominated landscape in western Maharashtra, India. Oryx 50, 156–162.
| A cat among the dogs: leopard Panthera pardus diet in a human-dominated landscape in western Maharashtra, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bahuguna, A. (2010). ‘Species Identification from Guard Hair of Selected Indian Mammals: a Reference Guide.’ (Wildlife Institute of India: Dehradun, India.)
Barlow, A. C., McDougal, C., Smith, J. L., Gurung, B., Bhatta, S. R., Kumal, S., and Tamang, D. B. (2009). Temporal variation in tiger (Panthera tigris) populations and its implications for monitoring. Journal of Mammalogy 90, 472–478.
| Temporal variation in tiger (Panthera tigris) populations and its implications for monitoring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bhattarai, B. P., and Kindlmann, P. (2012). Interactions between Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus): implications for their conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 2075–2094.
| Interactions between Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus): implications for their conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boast, L. K., and Houser, A. (2012). Density of large predators on commercial farmland in Ghanzi, Botswana. African Journal of Wildlife Research 42, 138–143.
| Density of large predators on commercial farmland in Ghanzi, Botswana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carter, N., Jasny, M., Gurung, B., and Liu, J. (2015). Impacts of people and tigers on leopard spatiotemporal activity patterns in a global biodiversity hotspot. Global Ecology and Conservation 3, 149–162.
| Impacts of people and tigers on leopard spatiotemporal activity patterns in a global biodiversity hotspot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
CBS (2013). ‘Environment statistics of Nepal 2013.’ (Central Bureau of Statistics: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
Dhakal, M., Karki, M., Jnawali, S., Subedi, N., Pradhan, N., Malla, S., and Oglethorpe, J. (2014). ‘Status of Tigers and Prey in Nepal.’ (Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
DNPWC, DFSC (2018). ‘Status of Tigers and Prey in Nepal.’ (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and Department of Forests and Soil Conservation: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
Edgaonkar, A. (2008). Ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus) in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and Satpura National Park, India. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
Espinosa, S., Celis, G., and Branch, L. C. (2018). When roads appear jaguars decline: increased access to an Amazonian wilderness area reduces potential for jaguar conservation. PLoS One 13, e0189740.
| When roads appear jaguars decline: increased access to an Amazonian wilderness area reduces potential for jaguar conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29298311PubMed |
Fischer, J., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16, 265–280.
| Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Foster, R. (2008). The ecology of jaguars (Panthera onca) in a human-influenced landscape. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Southampton, UK.
Ghoddousi, A., Soofi, M., Hamidi, A. K., Lumetsberger, T., Egli, L., Khorozyan, I., and Waltert, M. (2016). Assessing the role of livestock in big cat prey choice using spatiotemporal availability patterns. PLoS One 11, e0153439.
| Assessing the role of livestock in big cat prey choice using spatiotemporal availability patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27064680PubMed |
Ghoddousi, A., Soofi, M., Hamidi, A. K., Lumetsberger, T., Egli, L., Ashayeri, S., and Waltert, M. (2017). When pork is not on the menu: assessing trophic competition between large carnivores and poachers. Biological Conservation 209, 223–229.
| When pork is not on the menu: assessing trophic competition between large carnivores and poachers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gopalaswamy, A. M., Royle, J. A., Hines, J. E., Singh, P., Jathanna, D., Kumar, N. S., and Karanth, K. U. (2012). Program SPACECAP: software for estimating animal density using spatially explicit capture–recapture models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3, 1067–1072.
| Program SPACECAP: software for estimating animal density using spatially explicit capture–recapture models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harihar, A., Pandav, B., and Goyal, S. P. (2011). Responses of leopard Panthera pardus to the recovery of a tiger Panthera tigris population. Journal of Applied Ecology 48, 806–814.
| Responses of leopard Panthera pardus to the recovery of a tiger Panthera tigris population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayward, M. W., Henschel, P., O’brien, J., Hofmeyr, M., Balme, G., and Kerley, G. I. H. (2006). Prey preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus). Journal of Zoology 270, 298–313.
| Prey preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Inskip, C., and Zimmermann, A. (2009). Human–felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx 43, 18–34.
| Human–felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jacobson, A. P., Gerngross, P., Lemeris, J. R., Schoonover, R. F., Anco, C., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., and Kamler, J. F. (2016). Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range. PeerJ 4, e1974.
| Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27168983PubMed |
Jnawali, S., Baral, H., Lee, S., Acharya, K., Upadhyay, G., Pandey, M., and Griffiths, J. (2011). ‘The Status of Nepal Mammals: The National Red List Series.’ (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
Kandel, S. R. (2018). Status and prey preference of leopard (Panthera pardus) in Kamdi Corridor Banke, Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Khan, J. A., Chellam, R., Rodgers, W., and Johnsingh, A. (1996). Ungulate densities and biomass in the tropical dry deciduous forests of Gir, Gujarat, India. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12, 149–162.
| Ungulate densities and biomass in the tropical dry deciduous forests of Gir, Gujarat, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Khorozyan, I., Ghoddousi, A., Soofi, M., and Waltert, M. (2015). Big cats kill more livestock when wild prey reaches a minimum threshold. Biological Conservation 192, 268–275.
| Big cats kill more livestock when wild prey reaches a minimum threshold.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lamichhane, B. R., Persoon, G. A., Leirs, H., Musters, C. J. M., Subedi, N., Gairhe, K. P., Pokheral, C. P., Poudel, S., Mishra, R., Dhakal, M., and Smith, J. L. D. (2017). Are conflict-causing tigers different? Another perspective for understanding human–tiger conflict in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Global Ecology and Conservation 11, 177–187.
| Are conflict-causing tigers different? Another perspective for understanding human–tiger conflict in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lamichhane, B. R., Persoon, G. A., Leirs, H., Poudel, S., Subedi, N., Pokheral, C. P., and De Iongh, H. H. (2018). Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. PLoS One 13, e0195373.
| Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29672538PubMed |
Lamichhane, B. R., Leirs, H., Persoon, G. A., Subedi, N., Dhakal, M., Oli, B. N., and Malla, S. (2019). Factors associated with co-occurrence of large carnivores in a human-dominated landscape. Biodiversity and Conservation 28, 1473–1491.
| Factors associated with co-occurrence of large carnivores in a human-dominated landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Linnell, J. D., Odden, J., Smith, M. E., Aanes, R., and Swenson, J. E. (1999). Large carnivores that kill livestock: do “problem individuals” really exist? Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 698–705.
Lumetsberger, T., Ghoddousi, A., Appel, A., Khorozyan, I., Waltert, M., and Kiffner, C. (2017). Re‐evaluating models for estimating prey consumption by leopards. Journal of Zoology 302, 201–210.
| Re‐evaluating models for estimating prey consumption by leopards.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miththapala, S., Seidensticker, J., Phillips, L., Fernando, S., and Smallwood, J. (1989). Identification of individual leopards (Panthera pardus kotiya) using spot pattern variation. Journal of Zoology 218, 527–536.
| Identification of individual leopards (Panthera pardus kotiya) using spot pattern variation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
MoFSC (2015). ‘Strategy and Action Plan 2015–2025, Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal.’ (Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
Mondal, K., Gupta, S., Bhattacharjee, S., Qureshi, Q., and Sankar, K. (2012). Response of leopards to re-introduced tigers in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Western India. International Journal of Biodeversity and Conservation 4, 228–236.
| Response of leopards to re-introduced tigers in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Western India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mukherjee, S., Goyal, S., and Chellam, R. (1994). Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National Park, Western India. Mammalia 58, 139–144.
| Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National Park, Western India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nowell, K., and Jackson, P. (1996). ‘Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (Vol. 382)’. (IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.)
Odden, M., Wegge, P., and Fredriksen, T. (2010). Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? Ecological Research 25, 875–881.
| Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Odden, M., Athreya, V., Rattan, S., and Linnell, J. D. (2014). Adaptable neighbours: movement patterns of GPS-collared leopards in human dominated landscapes in India. PLoS One 9, e112044.
| Adaptable neighbours: movement patterns of GPS-collared leopards in human dominated landscapes in India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25390067PubMed |
Ramakrishnan, U., Coss, R. G., and Pelkey, N. W. (1999). Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India. Biological Conservation 89, 113–120.
| Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ray, J. C., Hunter, L., and Zigouris, J. (2005). Setting conservation and research priorities for larger African carnivores. Working paper 24, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, New York, NY, USA.
Raza, R. H., Chauhan, D. S., Pasha, M., and Sinha, S. (2012). Illuminating the blind spot: a study on illegal trade in leopard parts in India (2001–2010). TRAFFIC India/WWF India, New Delhi, India.
R Core Team (2018). ‘R: A language and environment for statistical computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria.) Available at https://www.R-project.org/ [verified May 2020].
Rostro-García, S., Kamler, J. F., Crouthers, R., Sopheak, K., Prum, S., In, V., and Macdonald, D. W. (2018). An adaptable but threatened big cat: density, diet and prey selection of the Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) in eastern Cambodia. Royal Society Open Science 5, 171187.
| An adaptable but threatened big cat: density, diet and prey selection of the Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) in eastern Cambodia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29515839PubMed |
Saberwal, V. K., Gibbs, J. P., Chellam, R., and Johnsingh, A. (1994). Lion‐human conflict in the Gir Forest, India. Conservation Biology 8, 501–507.
| Lion‐human conflict in the Gir Forest, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shrestha, M. K. (2004). Relative ungulate abundance in a fragmented landscape: implications for tiger conservation. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA.
Simcharoen, A., Simcharoen, S., Duangchantrasiri, S., Bump, J., and Smith, J. L. (2018). Tiger and leopard diets in western Thailand: evidence for overlap and potential consequences. Food Webs 15, e00085.
| Tiger and leopard diets in western Thailand: evidence for overlap and potential consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Singh, H. (2005). Status of leopard (Panthera parnus fusca) in India. Indian Forester 131, 1353–1362.
Srivathsa, A., Parameshwaran, R., Sharma, S., and Karanth, K. U. (2015). Estimating population sizes of leopard cats in the Western Ghats using camera surveys. Journal of Mammalogy 96, 742–750.
| Estimating population sizes of leopard cats in the Western Ghats using camera surveys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stein, A., Athreya, V., Gerngross, P., Balme, G., Henschel, P., Karanth, U., and Laguardia, A. (2016). Panthera pardus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Paper e.T15954A50659089. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Sunquist, M., and Sunquist, F. (2017). ‘Wild Cats of the World.’ (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA.)
Thapa, T. B. (2011). Habitat suitability evaluation for leopard (Panthera pardus) using remote sensing and GIS in and around Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India.
Thapa, T. B. (2015). Human caused mortality in the leopard (Panthera pardus) population of Nepal. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology 19, 155–159.
| Human caused mortality in the leopard (Panthera pardus) population of Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thapa, K., Shrestha, R., Karki, J., Thapa, G. J., Subedi, N., Pradhan, N. M. B., and Kelly, M. J. (2014). Leopard Panthera pardus fusca density in the seasonally dry, subtropical forest in the Bhabhar of Terai Arc, Nepal. Advances in Ecology 2014, 286949.
| Leopard Panthera pardus fusca density in the seasonally dry, subtropical forest in the Bhabhar of Terai Arc, Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Upadhyaya, S. K., Musters, C. J. M., Lamichhane, B. R., De Snoo, G. R., Thapa, P., Dhakal, M., and De Iongh, H. H. (2018). An insight into the diet and prey preference of tigers in Bardia National Park, Nepal. Tropical Conservation Science 11, .
| An insight into the diet and prey preference of tigers in Bardia National Park, Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Upadhyaya, S. K., Musters, C. J. M., Lamichhane, B. R., De Snoo, G. R., Dhakal, M., and De Iongh, H. H. (2019). Determining the risk of predator attacks around protected areas: the case of Bardia National Park, Nepal. Oryx , .
| Determining the risk of predator attacks around protected areas: the case of Bardia National Park, Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, S. T., Williams, K. S., Lewis, B. P., and Hill, R. A. (2017). Population dynamics and threats to an apex predator outside protected areas: implications for carnivore management. Royal Society Open Science 4, 161090.
| Population dynamics and threats to an apex predator outside protected areas: implications for carnivore management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28484625PubMed |
WWF Nepal (2017). ‘Assessment of Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trafficking in Banke-Kamdi Complex.’ (WWF Nepal: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
