Effects of unregulated visitor access on chick fledging mass and survival in yellow-eyed penguins
Gemma Bell A , Melanie J. Young A , Philip J. Seddon A and Yolanda van Heezik
A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Zoology Department, University of Otago, 340 Great King Street, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
B Corresponding author. Email: yolanda.vanheezik@otago.ac.nz
Wildlife Research 47(6) 468-475 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR19245
Submitted: 20 December 2019 Accepted: 25 April 2020 Published: 21 July 2020
Abstract
Context: Wildlife tourism is expanding and can detrimentally affect taxa such as penguins, if not managed carefully. The yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) is an endangered species, with mainland populations projected to decline to extinction in the next 40 years, despite conservation interventions. Their nesting sites are exposed to increasing numbers of human visitors, which contributes to reduced reproductive success.
Aims: We evaluated the effectiveness of a breeding colony (Boulder Beach) closure to the public, which was implemented to reduce visitor disturbance.
Methods: We compared reproductive success 5 years before and 5 years during the closure with success at an adjacent site (Sandfly Bay) that experiences high human disturbance, over the same time periods.
Key results: Beach closure did not result in an increase in chick mass or survival at Boulder Beach; however, trends at adjacent Sandfly Bay suggested that, without the closure, chick survival at Boulder Beach would likely have declined. Chick survival decreased at Sandfly Bay across the two 5-year periods, whereas chick survival at Boulder Beach did not decline, but remained constant during the closure years.
Conclusions: The beach closure was beneficial because it appeared to buffer environmental factors, so that mean chick survival remained constant rather than declining.
Implications: Beach closures might be difficult to implement because of public expectations regarding free access to coastal land in New Zealand, but they should be considered at sites where increasing numbers of visitors are likely to have detrimental impacts on wildlife. Without urgent action, these culturally important animals will likely be extinct on mainland New Zealand within the next few decades. Beach closures may represent an effective management measure to increase population resilience by decreasing the detrimental impacts of visitors on breeding success.
Additional keywords: beach closure, hoiho, human disturbance, wildlife tourism.
References
Acevedo‐Gutiérrez, A., Acevedo, L., and Boren, L. (2011). Effects of the presence of official‐looking volunteers on harassment of New Zealand fur seals. Conservation Biology 25, 623–627.| Effects of the presence of official‐looking volunteers on harassment of New Zealand fur seals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21129030PubMed |
Alley, M. R., Suepaul, R. B., McKinlay, B., Young, M. J., Wang, J., Morgan, K. J., Hunter, S. A., and Gartrell, B. D. (2017). Diphtheritic stomatitis in yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in New Zealand. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 53, 102–110.
| Diphtheritic stomatitis in yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27788054PubMed |
Bartoń, K. (2016). ‘MuMIn: Multi-model Inference.’ R package version 1.15.6. Available at https://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=MuMIn [verified 21 July 2016].
Bates, D., Maechler, M., and Bolker, B. (2011). ‘lme4: Linear Mixed-effects Models using S4 Classes.’ R package version 0.999375-39. Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4 [verified August 2016].
Beale, C. M., and Monaghan, P. (2004). Human disturbance: people as predation‐free predators? Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 335–343.
| Human disturbance: people as predation‐free predators?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
BirdLife International (2018). Megadyptes antipodes. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018, .
| Megadyptes antipodes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boersma, P. D., and Rebstock, G. A. (2010). Effects of double bands on Magellanic penguins. Journal of Field Ornithology 81, 195–205.
| Effects of double bands on Magellanic penguins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burnham, K. P., Anderson, D. R., and Huyvaert, K. P. (2011). AIC model selection and multimodel inference in behavioral ecology: some background, observations, and comparisons. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65, 23–35.
| AIC model selection and multimodel inference in behavioral ecology: some background, observations, and comparisons.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buxton, R. T., Galvan, R., McKenna, M. F., White, C. L., and Seher, V. (2017). Visitor noise at a nesting colony alters the behavior of a coastal seabird. Marine Ecology Progress Series 570, 233–246.
| Visitor noise at a nesting colony alters the behavior of a coastal seabird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carey, M. J. (2009). The effects of investigator disturbance on procellariiform seabirds: a review. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 36, 367–377.
| The effects of investigator disturbance on procellariiform seabirds: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carney, K. M., and Sydeman, W. J. (1999). A review of human disturbance effects on nesting colonial waterbirds. Waterbirds 22, 68–79.
| A review of human disturbance effects on nesting colonial waterbirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clark, R. D., Mathieu, R., and Seddon, P. J. (2015). Selection for protection from insolation results in the visual isolation of yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes nests. Bird Conservation International 25, 192–206.
| Selection for protection from insolation results in the visual isolation of yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes nests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conley, M. (2011). Assessing the effectiveness of temporarily excluding tourists from a yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) breeding beach. University of Otago Wildlife Management report number 253. University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Dann, P., Sidhu, L. A., Jessop, R., Renwick, L., Healy, M., Dettmann, B., Baker, B., and Catchpole, E. A. (2014). Effects of flipper bands and injected transponders on the survival of adult little penguins Eudyptula minor. The Ibis 156, 73–83.
| Effects of flipper bands and injected transponders on the survival of adult little penguins Eudyptula minor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Darby, J. T., and Dawson, S. M. (2000). Bycatch of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in gillnets in New Zealand waters 1979–1997. Biological Conservation 93, 327–332.
| Bycatch of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in gillnets in New Zealand waters 1979–1997.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Darby, J. T., and Seddon, P. J. (1990). Breeding biology of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes). In ‘Penguin Biology’. (Eds L.S. Davis and J.T. Darby.) pp. 45–62. (Academic Press Incorporation: San Diego, CA, USA.)
Ellenberg, U. (2017). Impacts of penguin tourism. In ‘Ecotourism’s Promise and Peril’. (Eds D. T. Blumstein, B. Geffroy, D. S. M. Samia, and E. Bessa.) pp. 117–132. (Springer International Publishing AG: Cham, Switzerland.)
Ellenberg, U., Mattern, T., Seddon, P. J., and Jorquera, G. L. (2006). Physiological and reproductive consequences of human disturbance in Humboldt penguins: the need for species-specific visitor management. Biological Conservation 133, 95–106.
| Physiological and reproductive consequences of human disturbance in Humboldt penguins: the need for species-specific visitor management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ellenberg, U., Setiawan, A. N., Cree, A., Houston, D. M., and Seddon, P. J. (2007). Elevated hormonal stress response and reduced reproductive output in yellow-eyed penguins exposed to unregulated tourism. General and Comparative Endocrinology 152, 54–63.
| Elevated hormonal stress response and reduced reproductive output in yellow-eyed penguins exposed to unregulated tourism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17400221PubMed |
Ellenberg, U., Mattern, T., and Seddon, P. J. (2009). Habituation potential of yellow-eyed penguins depends on sex, character and previous experience with humans. Animal Behaviour 77, 289–296.
| Habituation potential of yellow-eyed penguins depends on sex, character and previous experience with humans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ellenberg, U., Mattern, T., and Seddon, P. J. (2013). Heart rate responses provide an objective evaluation of human disturbance stimuli in breeding birds. Conservation Physiology 1, cot013.
| Heart rate responses provide an objective evaluation of human disturbance stimuli in breeding birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27293597PubMed |
Filion, F. L., Foley, J. P., and Jacqemot, A. J. (1994). The economics of global ecotourism. In ‘Protected Area Economics and Policy: Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development’. (Eds M. Munasinghe and J. McNealy.) pp. 235–252. (The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA.)
French, R. K., Muller, C. G., Chilvers, B. L., and Battley, P. F. (2019). Behavioural consequences of human disturbance on subantarctic yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes. Bird Conservation International 29, 277–290.
| Behavioural consequences of human disturbance on subantarctic yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gelman, A. (2008). Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations. Statistics in Medicine 27, 2865–2873.
| Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17960576PubMed |
Gill, J. A. (2007). Approaches to measuring the effects of human disturbance on birds. The Ibis 149, 9–14.
| Approaches to measuring the effects of human disturbance on birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grueber, C. E., Nakagawa, S., Laws, R. J., and Jamieson, I. G. (2011). Multimodel inference in ecology and evolution: challenges and solutions. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 24, 699–711.
| Multimodel inference in ecology and evolution: challenges and solutions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21272107PubMed |
Hegg, D., Giroir, T., Ellenberg, U., and Seddon, P. J. (2012). Yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) as a case study to assess the reliability of nest counts. Journal of Ornithology 153, 457–466.
| Yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) as a case study to assess the reliability of nest counts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Houston, D., and Darby, J. T. (1996). ‘Yellow-eyed Penguin Database’. (Department of Conservation: Dunedin, New Zealand.)
Lusseau, D. (2003). The effects of tour boats on the behavior of bottlenose dolphins: using Markov chains to model anthropogenic impacts. Conservation Biology 17, 1785–1793.
| The effects of tour boats on the behavior of bottlenose dolphins: using Markov chains to model anthropogenic impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lusseau, D., and Higham, J. E. S. (2004). Managing the impacts of dolphin-based tourism through the definition of critical habitats: the case of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand. Tourism Management 25, 657–667.
| Managing the impacts of dolphin-based tourism through the definition of critical habitats: the case of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mattern, T., Meyer, S., Ellenberg, U., Houston, D. M., Darby, J. T., Young, M., van Heezik, Y., and Seddon, P. J. (2017). Quantifying climate change impacts emphasises the importance of managing regional threats in the endangered yellow-eyed penguin. PeerJ 5, e3272.
| Quantifying climate change impacts emphasises the importance of managing regional threats in the endangered yellow-eyed penguin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28533952PubMed |
Mazerolle, M. J. (2016). ‘AICcmodavg: Model Selection and Multimodel Inference based on (Q)AIC(c).’ R package version 2.0-4. Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=AICcmodavg [verified August 2016].
McClung, M. R., Seddon, P. J., Massaro, M., and Setiawan, A. N. (2004). Nature-based tourism impacts on yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes: does unregulated visitor access affect fledging weight and juvenile survival? Biological Conservation 119, 279–285.
| Nature-based tourism impacts on yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes: does unregulated visitor access affect fledging weight and juvenile survival?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKinlay, B. (2001). ‘Hoiho (Megadyptes antipodes) Recovery Plan 2000–2025.’ Threatened Species Recovery Plan 35. (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)
Moorhouse, T., D’Cruze, N. C., and Macdonald, D. W. (2017). Unethical use of wildlife in tourism: what’s the problem, who is responsible, and what can be done? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 25, 505–516.
| Unethical use of wildlife in tourism: what’s the problem, who is responsible, and what can be done?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nakagawa, S., and Freckleton, R. P. (2011). Model averaging, missing data and multiple imputation: a case study for behavioural ecology. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65, 103–116.
| Model averaging, missing data and multiple imputation: a case study for behavioural ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orams, M. B. (1996). A conceptual model of tourist‐wildlife interaction: the case for education as a management strategy. The Australian Geographer 27, 39–51.
| A conceptual model of tourist‐wildlife interaction: the case for education as a management strategy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peacock, L., Paulin, M., and Darby, J. (2000). Investigations into climate influence on population dynamics of yellow‐eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 27, 317–325.
| Investigations into climate influence on population dynamics of yellow‐eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penguin Rescue (2015). Penguin rescue (Katiki Point Penguin Refuge Charitable Trust): annual report 2014/15. Available at http://www.penguins.org.nz/uploads/5/0/5/2/50529715/penguinrescueannualreport2015. pdf [verified 20 August 2016].
R Development Core Team (2016). ‘R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria.)
Ratz, H., and Thompson, C. (1999). Who is watching whom? Checks for impacts of tourists on yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes. Marine Ornithology 27, 205–210.
Reijnen, R., Foppen, R., Braak, C. T., and Thissen, J. (1995). The effects of car traffic on breeding bird populations in woodland. III. Reduction of density in relation to the proximity of main roads. Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 187–202.
| The effects of car traffic on breeding bird populations in woodland. III. Reduction of density in relation to the proximity of main roads.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Richdale, L. E. (1957). ‘A Population Study of Penguins.’ (Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK.)
Saraux, C., Le Bohec, C., Durant, J. M., Viblanc, V. A., Gauthier-Clerc, M., Beaune, D., Park, Y. H., Yoccoz, N. G., Stenseth, N. C., and Le Maho, Y. (2011). Reliability of flipper-banded penguins as indicators of climate change. Nature 469, 203–206.
| Reliability of flipper-banded penguins as indicators of climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21228875PubMed |
Seddon, P. J., and Ellenberg, U. (2008). Effects of human disturbance on penguins: the need for site- and species-specific visitor management guidelines. In ‘Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management: Insights from the Natural and Social Sciences’. (Eds J. E. Higham and M. Lück.) pp. 163–181. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK.)
Seddon, P. J., Ellenberg, U., and van Heezik, Y. (2013). Yellow-eyed penguin. In ‘Penguins: Natural History and Conservation’. (Eds P. G. Borboroglu, and P. D. Boersma.) pp 91-110. (University of Washington Press: Seattle, WA, USA.)
Stokes, D. L. (2007). Things we like: human preferences among similar organisms and implications for conservation. Human Ecology 35, 361–369.
| Things we like: human preferences among similar organisms and implications for conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Symonds, M. R., and Moussalli, A. (2011). A brief guide to model selection, multimodel inference and model averaging in behavioural ecology using Akaike’s information criterion. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65, 13–21.
| A brief guide to model selection, multimodel inference and model averaging in behavioural ecology using Akaike’s information criterion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tisdell, C. (2007). The Economic Importance of Wildlife Conservation on the Otago Peninsula: 20 Years On. Working paper no. 144. The University of Queensland School of Economics: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.
Trathan, P. N., García‐Borboroglu, P., Boersma, D., Bost, C. A., Crawford, R. J., Crossin, G. T., and Ellenberg, U. (2015). Pollution, habitat loss, fishing, and climate change as critical threats to penguins. Conservation Biology 29, 31–41.
| Pollution, habitat loss, fishing, and climate change as critical threats to penguins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25102756PubMed |
van Heezik, Y., and Davis, L. S. (1990). Influence of food quality on growth rates, breeding success and moult in the yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). The Ibis 132, 354–365.
van Heezik, Y. M. (1991). A comparison of yellow-eyed penguin growth rates across fifty years: Richdale revisited. Notornis 38, 117–123.
Watson, H., Bolton, M., and Monaghan, P. (2014). Out of sight but not out of harm’s way: human disturbance reduces reproductive success of a cavity-nesting seabird. Biological Conservation 174, 127–133.
| Out of sight but not out of harm’s way: human disturbance reduces reproductive success of a cavity-nesting seabird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24899731PubMed |
Williams, T. D., and Croxall, J. P. (1990). Is chick fledging weight a good index of food availability in seabird populations? Oikos 59, 414–416.
| Is chick fledging weight a good index of food availability in seabird populations?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wright, M. (1998). ‘Ecotourism on Otago Peninsula: Preliminary Studies of Hoihos (Megadyptes antipodes) and Hookers Sealion (Photarctos hookerii).’ Science for Conservation 68. (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)
Young, M. J. (2014). Determining the drivers of yellow-eyed penguin/hōiho (Megadyptes antipodes) productivity. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
