Effects of fuel bed structure on heat transfer mechanisms within and above porous fuel beds in quiescent flame spread scenarios
Zakary Campbell-Lochrie![https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8055-0405](/media/client/orcid_16x16.png)
A School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
B Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, New Lisbon, NJ, USA.
C Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Morgantown, WV, USA.
International Journal of Wildland Fire 32(6) 913-926 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF22129
Submitted: 1 July 2022 Accepted: 10 March 2023 Published: 31 March 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of IAWF. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Background: Further understanding of the effect of fuel structure on underlying physical phenomena controlling flame spread is required given the lack of a coherent porous flame spread theory.
Aims: To systematically investigate the effect of fuel structure on the heat transfer mechanisms within and above porous fuel beds.
Methods: Radiant and total heat fluxes were measured in two extended series of laboratory-based quiescent flame spread experiments in pine needle beds across a range of structural conditions (various fuel loadings, bulk densities, and fuel depths).
Key results: Peak radiant heat fluxes from the in-bed combustion region were greater than peak radiant heat fluxes from the above-bed flame front for all of the studied fuel conditions. However, the magnitude and duration of radiant heating from the above-bed flame increased with fuel loading (where bulk density was held constant and fuel depth allowed to vary).
Conclusions: Our study highlighted the important role of fuel structure on heat transfer mechanisms, and the relevance of development of semi-empirical and simplified physics-based models.
Implications: The interdependent effects of fuel bed properties on the underlying heat transfer mechanisms must be considered in the further development of coherent, flame spread theories.
Keywords: fire modelling, flame spread, fuel structure, heat flux, heat transfer, pitch pine, prescribed fire, thermal model.
References
Albini FA (1967) A physical model for firespread in brush. Symposium (International) on Combustion 11, 553–560.| A physical model for firespread in brush.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson HE (1969) Heat transfer and fire spread. Research Paper INT-69, USDA Forest Service, Ogden, UT, USA.
| Crossref |
Babrauskas V, Grayson S (1992) ‘Heat Release in Fires.’ (Elsevier Applied Science: New York, NY, USA)
Bartoli P (2011) Feux de forêt : amélioration de la connaissance du couplage combustible-flamme. PhD Thesis, Universite di Corsica-Pasquale Paoli, Corte, France and The University of Edinburgh, Scotland. [In French]
Boulet P, Parent G, Collin A, Acem Z, Porterie B, Clerc JP, Consalvi JL, Kaiss A (2009) Spectral emission of flames from laboratory-scale vegetation fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 875–884.
| Spectral emission of flames from laboratory-scale vegetation fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bu R, Zhou Y, Shi L, Fan C (2021) Experimental study on combustion and flame spread characteristics in horizontal arrays of discrete fuels. Combustion and Flame 225, 136–146.
| Experimental study on combustion and flame spread characteristics in horizontal arrays of discrete fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Campbell-Lochrie Z, Walker-Ravena C, Mueller E V, Hadden RM (2018) The effect of interstitial flow on the burning dynamics of porous fuel beds. In ‘Advances in Forest Fire Research 2018’. (Ed. Viegas DX) (Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra: Coimbra, Portugal)
| Crossref |
Campbell-Lochrie Z, Walker-Ravena C, Gallagher M, Skowronski N, Mueller EV, Hadden RM (2021) Investigation of the role of bulk properties and in-bed structure in the flow regime of buoyancy-dominated flame spread in porous fuel beds. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103035
| Investigation of the role of bulk properties and in-bed structure in the flow regime of buoyancy-dominated flame spread in porous fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carrier GF, Fendell FE, Wolff MF (1991) Wind-aided firespread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. I. Theory. Combustion Science and Technology 75, 31–51.
| Wind-aided firespread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. I. Theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Catchpole WR, Catchpole EA, Butler BW, Rothermel RC, Morris GA, Latham DJ (1998) Rate of spread of free-burning fires in woody fuels in a wind tunnel. Combustion Science and Technology 131, 1–37.
| Rate of spread of free-burning fires in woody fuels in a wind tunnel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohen JD, Finney MA (2022a) Fuel particle heat transfer part 2: radiation and vonvection during dpreading laboratory fires. Combustion Science and Technology
| Fuel particle heat transfer part 2: radiation and vonvection during dpreading laboratory fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohen JD, Finney MA (2022b) Fuel particle heat transfer part 1: convective cooling of irradiated fuel particles. Combustion Science and Technology
| Fuel particle heat transfer part 1: convective cooling of irradiated fuel particles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Curry JR, Fons WL (1940) Forest-fire behavior studies. Mechanical Engineering 62, 219–225.
Drysdale D (2011) ‘An Introduction to Fire Dynamics.’ (John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK)
Dupuy JL (1995) Slope and fuel load effects on fire behavior: laboratory experiments in pine needles fuel beds. International Journal of Wildland Fire 5, 153–164.
| Slope and fuel load effects on fire behavior: laboratory experiments in pine needles fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dupuy JL, Maréchal J (2011) Slope effect on laboratory fire spread: contribution of radiation and convection to fuel bed preheating. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 289–307.
| Slope effect on laboratory fire spread: contribution of radiation and convection to fuel bed preheating.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Emmons H (1963) Fire in the Forest. In ‘Fire Research Abstracts and Reviews. Vol. 5’. (National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA) (Ed. W. G. Berl). pp. 163–178.
| Crossref |
Fang JB, Steward FR (1969) Flame spread through randomly packed fuel particles. Combustion and Flame 13, 392–398.
| Flame spread through randomly packed fuel particles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fayad J, Rossi L, Frangieh N, Awad C, Accary G, Chatelon F-J, Morandini F, Marcelli T, Cancellieri V, Cancellieri D, Morvan D, Pieri A, Planelles G, Costantini R, Meradji S, Rossi J-L (2022) Numerical study of an experimental high-intensity prescribed fire across Corsican Genista salzmannii vegetation. Fire Safety Journal 131, 103600
| Numerical study of an experimental high-intensity prescribed fire across Corsican Genista salzmannii vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA, Cohen JD, Mcallister SS, Jolly WM (2013) On the need for a theory of wildland fire spread. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 25–36.
| On the need for a theory of wildland fire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA, Cohen JD, Forthofer JM, McAllister SS, Gollner MJ, Gorham DJ, Saito K, Akafuah NK, Adam BA, English JD (2015) Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, 9833–9838.
| Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fons WL (1963) Forest fire modelling. In ‘ASME-ASCE Meeting, August 1963, Boston, MA’. pp. 164–175. (US Forest Service: Washington, DC, USA)
Fons WL, Bruce HD, Pong WY, Richards S (1960) Project Fire Model Summary Progress Report. Period 1 November 1958 to 30 April 1960. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, CA, USA. Available at https://archive.org/details/CAT31365383/page/n1/mode/2up
Fons WL, Clements HB, Elliot ER, George P (1962) Project Fire Model – Summary Progress Report II. Period 1 May 1960 to 30 April 1962. Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, Macon, GA, USA. Available at https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/1960/ja_1960_fons_001.pdf
Frankman D, Webb BW, Butler BW (2010) Time-resolved radiation and convection heat transfer in combusting discontinuous fuel beds. Combustion Science and Technology 182, 1391–1412.
| Time-resolved radiation and convection heat transfer in combusting discontinuous fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frankman D, Webb BW, Butler BW, Jimenez D, Forthofer JM, Sopko P, Shannon KS, Hiers JK, Ottmar RD (2013) Measurements of convective and radiative heating in wildland fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 157–167.
| Measurements of convective and radiative heating in wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gallagher MR, Clark KL, Thomas JC, Mell WE, Hadden RM, Mueller EV, Kremens RL, El Houssami M, Filkov AI, Simeoni AA, Skowronski NS (2017) New Jersey fuel treatment effects: pre-and post-burn biometric data. Forest Service Research Data Archive, Washington, DC, USA
| Crossref |
He Q, Liu N, Xie X, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Yan W (2021) Experimental study on fire spread over discrete fuel bed. Part I: effects of packing ratio. Fire Safety Journal 126, 103470
| Experimental study on fire spread over discrete fuel bed. Part I: effects of packing ratio.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hiers JK, O’Brien JJ, Varner JM, Butler BW, Dickinson M, Furman J, Gallagher M, Godwin D, Goodrick SL, Hood SM, Hudak A, Kobziar LN, Linn R, Loudermilk EL, McCaffrey S, Robertson K, Rowell EM, Skowronski N, Watts AC, Yedinak KM (2020) Prescribed fire science: the case for a refined research agenda. Fire Ecology 16, 11
| Prescribed fire science: the case for a refined research agenda.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
ISO 14934-4:2014 (2014) Fire tests – Calibration and use of heat flux meters – Part 4 : guidance on the use of heat flux meters in fire tests. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland. Available at https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/-iso:std:iso:14934:-4:ed-1:v1:en
Janssens ML (1991) Measuring rate of heat release by oxygen consumption. Fire Technology 27, 234–249.
| Measuring rate of heat release by oxygen consumption.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Konev EV, Sukhinin AI (1977) The analysis of flame spread through forest fuel. Combustion and Flame 28, 217–223.
| The analysis of flame spread through forest fuel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lai Y, Wang X, Rockett TBO, Willmott JR, Zhou H, Zhang Y (2020) The effect of preheating on fire propagation on inclined wood by multi-spectrum and schlieren visualisation. Fire Safety Journal 118, 103223
| The effect of preheating on fire propagation on inclined wood by multi-spectrum and schlieren visualisation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liu N, Wu J, Chen H, Zhang L, Deng Z, Satoh K, Viegas DX, Raposo JR (2015) Upslope spread of a linear flame front over a pine needle fuel bed: the role of convection cooling. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35, 2691–2698.
| Upslope spread of a linear flame front over a pine needle fuel bed: the role of convection cooling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCarter RJ, Broido A (1965) Radiative and convective energy from wood crib fires. Pyrodynamics 2, 65–85.
McGuire JH (1952) The calculation of heat transfer by radiation. Fire Research Note No. 20. International Association for Fire Safety Science. Available at https://publications.iafss.org/publications/frn/20/-1/view/frn_20.pdf
Morandini F, Simeoni A, Santoni PA, Balbi JH (2005) A model for the spread of fire across a fuel bed incorporating the effects of wind and slope. Combustion Science and Technology 177, 1381–1418.
| A model for the spread of fire across a fuel bed incorporating the effects of wind and slope.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morandini F, Perez-Ramirez Y, Tihay V, Santoni PA, Barboni T (2013) Radiant, convective and heat release characterization of vegetation fire. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 70, 83–91.
| Radiant, convective and heat release characterization of vegetation fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morandini F, Silvani X, Dupuy JL, Susset A (2018) Fire spread across a sloping fuel bed: flame dynamics and heat transfers. Combustion and Flame 190, 158–170.
| Fire spread across a sloping fuel bed: flame dynamics and heat transfers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morandini F, Toulouse T, Silvani X, Pieri A, Rossi L (2019) Image-based diagnostic system for the measurement of flame properties and radiation. Fire Technology 55, 2443–2463.
| Image-based diagnostic system for the measurement of flame properties and radiation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mueller E V, Skowronski N, Clark K, Gallagher M, Kremens R, Thomas JC, El Houssami M, Filkov A, Hadden RM, Mell W, Simeoni A (2017) Utilization of remote sensing techniques for the quantification of fire behavior in two pine stands. Fire Safety Journal 91, 845–854.
| Utilization of remote sensing techniques for the quantification of fire behavior in two pine stands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Overholt KJ, Kurzawski AJ, Cabrera J, Koopersmith M, Ezekoye OA (2014) Fire behavior and heat fluxes for lab-scale burning of little bluestem grass. Fire Safety Journal 67, 70–81.
| Fire behavior and heat fluxes for lab-scale burning of little bluestem grass.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rossa CG, Fernandes PM (2018) Empirical modeling of fire spread rate in no-wind and no-slope conditions. Forest Science 64, 358–370.
| Empirical modeling of fire spread rate in no-wind and no-slope conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothermel RC (1972) A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. Research Paper INT-115. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT, USA
Rothermel RC, Anderson HE (1966) Fire spread characteristics determined in the laboratory. Research Paper INT-30. US Forest Service, Intermountain Forest & Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT, USA
Silvani X, Morandini F (2009) Fire spread experiments in the field: temperature and heat fluxes measurements. Fire Safety Journal 44, 279–285.
| Fire spread experiments in the field: temperature and heat fluxes measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Silvani X, Morandini F, Dupuy JL (2012) Effects of slope on fire spread observed through video images and multiple-point thermal measurements. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 41, 99–111.
| Effects of slope on fire spread observed through video images and multiple-point thermal measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Silvani X, Morandini F, Dupuy JL, Susset A, Vernet R, Lambert O (2018) Measuring velocity field and heat transfer during natural fire spread over large inclinable bench. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 92, 184–201.
| Measuring velocity field and heat transfer during natural fire spread over large inclinable bench.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sullivan AL (2009) Wildland surface fire spread modelling, 1990–2007. 1: Physical and quasi-physical models. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 349–368.
| Wildland surface fire spread modelling, 1990–2007. 1: Physical and quasi-physical models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomas PH, Simms DL, Wraight HG (1965) Fire spread in wooden cribs. Part II. Heat transfer experiments in still air. Fire Safety Science 599, 1
Thomas JC, Hadden RM, Simeoni A (2017) Experimental investigation of the impact of oxygen flux on the burning dynamics of forest fuel beds. Fire Safety Journal 91, 855–863.
| Experimental investigation of the impact of oxygen flux on the burning dynamics of forest fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tihay V, Morandini F, Santoni PA, Perez-Ramirez Y, Barboni T (2014) Combustion of forest litters under slope conditions: burning rate, heat release rate, convective and radiant fractions for different loads. Combustion and Flame 161, 3237–3248.
| Combustion of forest litters under slope conditions: burning rate, heat release rate, convective and radiant fractions for different loads.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1967) Calculations on forest fire spread by flame radiation. Forestry Branch Departmental Publication No. 1185. Available at https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/24717.pdf
Vaz GC, André JCS, Viegas DX (2004) Fire spread model for a linear front in a horizontal solid porous fuel bed in still air. Combustion Science and Technology 176, 135–182.
| Fire spread model for a linear front in a horizontal solid porous fuel bed in still air.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Viegas DX, Pinto C, Raposo J (2018) Burning rate. In ‘Encyclopedia of wildfires and wildland-urban interface (WUI) fires’. (Ed. S Manzello) pp. 1–8. (Springer: Cham)
| Crossref |
Vogel M, Williams FA (1970) Flame propagation along matchstick arrays. Combustion Science and Technology 1, 429–436.
| Flame propagation along matchstick arrays.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weber RO (1991) Modelling fire spread through fuel beds. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 17, 67–82.
| Modelling fire spread through fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weber RO, De Mestre NJ (1990) Flame spread measurements on single Ponderosa pine needles: effect of sample orientation and concurrent external flow. Combustion Science and Technology 70, 17–32.
| Flame spread measurements on single Ponderosa pine needles: effect of sample orientation and concurrent external flow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams FA (1977) Mechanisms of fire spread. Symposium (International) on Combustion 16, 1281–1294.
| Mechanisms of fire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson RA (1990) Reexamination of Rothermel fire spread equations in no-wind and no-slope conditions. Research Paper INT-434. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT, USA.