Disturbance history modulates how litter and herbaceous cover influence conifer regeneration after fire
Nathan S. Gill
A B D , Daniel Jarvis C , John Rogan A and Dominik Kulakowski A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
B Present address: Department of Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
C Vermont Technical College, 124 Admin Drive, Randolph Center, VT 05061, USA.
D Corresponding author. Email: nathan.gill@ttu.edu
International Journal of Wildland Fire 29(6) 519-529 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF19028
Submitted: 26 February 2019 Accepted: 21 December 2019 Published: 7 February 2020
Abstract
Climate-driven increases in disturbance frequency and extent augment the potential for compounded disturbances. Drawing on well-studied forests that experienced successive disturbances, we asked: (1) how does post-fire cover of litter, herbaceous cover and bare ground vary between stands affected by combinations of blow-down, insect outbreak, and fire? (2) How do post-fire relationships between ground cover and conifer regeneration vary with recent disturbance history? We measured ground cover and conifer regeneration from 2003 to 2014 following stand-replacing fires in 2002. Burned stands were either blown down in 1997, affected by a 1940s Dendroctonus rufipennis (spruce beetle; SB) outbreak, or neither. Implementing mixed-effects models, we measured the relationships between pre-fire stand attributes (structural stage, canopy dominance and combination of disturbances) and post-fire ground cover and between post-fire ground cover and conifer regeneration. Fire-only stands had more litter and herbaceous cover post fire than other stands (P < 0.05). Fir regeneration increased with litter in stands that only burned, but decreased with litter in stands that were first blown down. Similarly, pine and fir regeneration increased with herbaceous cover after fire-only, but did the opposite in stands affected by the SB outbreak. Pre-fire legacies can modulate the effects of ground cover on plant regeneration.
Additional keywords: beetle outbreak, blow-down, compounded disturbance, facilitation, ground cover, post-fire regeneration, subalpine forest.
References
Agrawal AA, Ackerly DD, Adler F, Arnold AE, Cáceres C, Doak DF, Post E, Hudson PJ, Maron J, Mooney KA, Power M, Schemske D, Stachowicz J, Strauss S, Turner MG, Werner E (2007) Filling key gaps in population and community ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5, 145–152.| Filling key gaps in population and community ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Allen CD (2007) Interactions across spatial scales among forest dieback, fire, and erosion in northern New Mexico landscapes. Ecosystems 10, 797–808.
| Interactions across spatial scales among forest dieback, fire, and erosion in northern New Mexico landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andrus RA, Veblen TT, Harvey BJ, Hart SJ (2016) Fire severity unaffected by spruce beetle outbreak in spruce–fir forests in south-western Colorado. Ecological Applications 26, 700–711.
| Fire severity unaffected by spruce beetle outbreak in spruce–fir forests in south-western Colorado.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27411244PubMed |
Bebi P, Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2003) Interactions between fire and spruce beetles in a subalpine Rocky Mountain forest landscape. Ecology 84, 362–371.
| Interactions between fire and spruce beetles in a subalpine Rocky Mountain forest landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bigler C, Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2005) Multiple disturbance interactions and drought influence fire severity in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests. Ecology 86, 3018–3029.
| Multiple disturbance interactions and drought influence fire severity in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bonnet VH, Schoettle AW, Shepperd WD (2005) Post-fire environmental conditions influence the spatial pattern of regeneration for Pinus ponderosa. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 37–47.
| Post-fire environmental conditions influence the spatial pattern of regeneration for Pinus ponderosa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buma B (2015) Disturbance interactions: characterization, prediction, and the potential for cascading effects. Ecosphere 6, art70
| Disturbance interactions: characterization, prediction, and the potential for cascading effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buma B, Wessman CA (2011) Disturbance interactions can impact resilience mechanisms of forests. Ecosphere 2, art64
| Disturbance interactions can impact resilience mechanisms of forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buma B, Wessman CA (2012) Differential species responses to compounded perturbations and implications for landscape heterogeneity and resilience. Forest Ecology and Management 266, 25–33.
| Differential species responses to compounded perturbations and implications for landscape heterogeneity and resilience.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buma B, Brown CD, Donato DC, Fontaine JB, Johnstone JF (2013) The impacts of changing disturbance regimes on serotinous plant populations and communities. Bioscience 63, 866–876.
| The impacts of changing disturbance regimes on serotinous plant populations and communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buma B, Poore RE, Wessman CA (2014) Disturbances, their interactions, and cumulative effects on carbon and charcoal stocks in a forested ecosystem. Ecosystems 17, 947–959.
| Disturbances, their interactions, and cumulative effects on carbon and charcoal stocks in a forested ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Callaway RM, Walker LR (1997) Competition and facilitation: a synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology 78, 1958–1965.
| Competition and facilitation: a synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cannon JB, Peterson CJ, O’Brien JJ, Brewer JS (2017) A review and classification of interactions between forest disturbance from wind and fire. Forest Ecology and Management 406, 381–390.
| A review and classification of interactions between forest disturbance from wind and fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cantarello E, Newton AC, Hill RA, Tejedor-Garavito N, Williams-Linera G, López-Barrera F, Manson RH, Golicher DJ (2011) Simulating the potential for ecological restoration of dryland forests in Mexico under different disturbance regimes. Ecological Modelling 222, 1112–1128.
| Simulating the potential for ecological restoration of dryland forests in Mexico under different disturbance regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carlson AR, Sibold JS, Assal TJ, Negrón JF (2017) Evidence of compounded disturbance effects on vegetation recovery following high-severity wildfire and spruce beetle outbreak. PLoS One 12, e0181778
| Evidence of compounded disturbance effects on vegetation recovery following high-severity wildfire and spruce beetle outbreak.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28777802PubMed |
Choler P, Michalet R, Callaway RM (2001) Facilitation and competition on gradients in alpine plant communities. Ecology 82, 3295–3308.
| Facilitation and competition on gradients in alpine plant communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conard SG, Radosevich SR (1982) Growth responses of white fir to decreased shading and root competition by montane chaparral shrubs. Forest Science 28, 309–320.
Côté D, Girard F, Hébert F, Bouchard S, Gagnon R, Lord D (2013) Is the closed-crown boreal forest resilient after successive stand disturbances? A quantitative demonstration from a case study. Journal of Vegetation Science 24, 664–674.
| Is the closed-crown boreal forest resilient after successive stand disturbances? A quantitative demonstration from a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dale VH, Joyce LA, McNulty S, Neilson RP, Ayres MP, Flannigan MD, Hanson PJ, Irland LC, Lugo AE, Peterson CJ, Simberloff D, Swanson FJ, Stocks BJ, Wotton BM (2001) Climate change and forest disturbances. Bioscience 51, 723–734.
| Climate change and forest disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dias ATC, Cornelissen JHC, Berg MP (2017) Litter for life: assessing the multifunctional legacy of plant traits. Journal of Ecology 105, 1163–1168.
| Litter for life: assessing the multifunctional legacy of plant traits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Enright NJ, Fontaine JB, Bowman DM, Bradstock RA, Williams RJ (2015) Interval squeeze: altered fire regimes and demographic responses interact to threaten woody species persistence as climate changes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 13, 265–272.
| Interval squeeze: altered fire regimes and demographic responses interact to threaten woody species persistence as climate changes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Evangelista PH, Kumar S, Stohlgren TJ, Young NE (2011) Assessing forest vulnerability and the potential distribution of pine beetles under current and future climate scenarios in the Interior West of the US. Forest Ecology and Management 262, 307–316.
| Assessing forest vulnerability and the potential distribution of pine beetles under current and future climate scenarios in the Interior West of the US.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Facelli JM, Pickett STA (1991) Plant litter: its dynamics and effects on plant community structure. Botanical Review 57, 1–32.
| Plant litter: its dynamics and effects on plant community structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Feller M (1998) Influence of ecological conditions on Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) germinant survival and initial seedling growth in south-central British Columbia. Forest Ecology and Management 107, 55–69.
| Influence of ecological conditions on Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) germinant survival and initial seedling growth in south-central British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Germino MJ, Smith WK, Resor AC (2002) Conifer seedling distribution and survival in an alpine treeline ecotone. Plant Ecology 162, 157–168.
| Conifer seedling distribution and survival in an alpine treeline ecotone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill NS, Sangermano F, Buma B, Kulakowski D (2017a) Populus tremuloides seedling establishment: an underexplored vector for forest type conversion after multiple disturbances. Forest Ecology and Management 404, 156–164.
| Populus tremuloides seedling establishment: an underexplored vector for forest type conversion after multiple disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill NS, Jarvis D, Veblen TT, Pickett STA, Kulakowski D (2017b) Is initial post-disturbance regeneration indicative of longer-term trajectories? Ecosphere 8, e01924
| Is initial post-disturbance regeneration indicative of longer-term trajectories?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gómez-Aparicio L, Valladares F, Zamora R, Luis Quero J (2005) Response of tree seedlings to the abiotic heterogeneity generated by nurse shrubs: an experimental approach at different scales. Ecography 28, 757–768.
| Response of tree seedlings to the abiotic heterogeneity generated by nurse shrubs: an experimental approach at different scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gower K, Fontaine JB, Birnbaum C, Enright NJ (2015) Sequential disturbance effects of hailstorm and fire on vegetation in a Mediterranean-type ecosystem. Ecosystems 18, 1121–1134.
| Sequential disturbance effects of hailstorm and fire on vegetation in a Mediterranean-type ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grootemaat S, Wright IJ, Bodegom PM, Cornelissen JHC, Cornwell WK (2015) Burn or rot: leaf traits explain why flammability and decomposability are decoupled across species. Functional Ecology 29, 1486–1497.
| Burn or rot: leaf traits explain why flammability and decomposability are decoupled across species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harvey BJ, Donato DC, Romme WH, Turner MG (2013) Influence of recent bark beetle outbreak on fire severity and post-fire tree regeneration in montane Douglas-fir forests. Ecology 94, 2475–2486.
| Influence of recent bark beetle outbreak on fire severity and post-fire tree regeneration in montane Douglas-fir forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24400499PubMed |
Harvey BJ, Donato DC, Turner MG (2016) Burn me twice, shame on who? Interactions between successive forest fires across a temperate mountain region. Ecology 97, 2272–2282.
| Burn me twice, shame on who? Interactions between successive forest fires across a temperate mountain region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27859087PubMed |
James PMA, Fortin M-J, Sturtevant BR, Fall A, Kneeshaw D (2011) Modelling spatial interactions among fire, spruce budworm, and logging in the boreal forest. Ecosystems 14, 60–75.
| Modelling spatial interactions among fire, spruce budworm, and logging in the boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Knapp AK, Smith WK (1982) Factors influencing understory seedling establishment of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in south-east Wyoming. Canadian Journal of Botany 60, 2753–2761.
| Factors influencing understory seedling establishment of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in south-east Wyoming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Knapp EE, Weatherspoon J, Skinner CN (2012) Shrub seed banks in mixed conifer forests of northern California and the role of fire in regulating abundance. Fire Ecology 8, 32–48.
| Shrub seed banks in mixed conifer forests of northern California and the role of fire in regulating abundance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krawchuk MA, Cumming SG (2009) Disturbance history affects lightning fire initiation in the mixed-wood boreal forest: observations and simulations. Forest Ecology and Management 257, 1613–1622.
| Disturbance history affects lightning fire initiation in the mixed-wood boreal forest: observations and simulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulakowski D, Jarvis D (2013) Low-severity fires increase susceptibility of lodgepole pine to mountain pine beetle outbreaks in Colorado. Forest Ecology and Management 289, 544–550.
| Low-severity fires increase susceptibility of lodgepole pine to mountain pine beetle outbreaks in Colorado.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2002) Influences of fire history and topography on the pattern of a severe wind blow-down in a Colorado subalpine forest. Journal of Ecology 90, 806–819.
| Influences of fire history and topography on the pattern of a severe wind blow-down in a Colorado subalpine forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2003) Subalpine forest development following a blow-down in the Mount Zirkel Wilderness, Colorado. Journal of Vegetation Science 14, 653–660.
| Subalpine forest development following a blow-down in the Mount Zirkel Wilderness, Colorado.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2007) Effect of prior disturbances on the extent and severity of wildfire in Colorado subalpine forests. Ecology 88, 759–769.
| Effect of prior disturbances on the extent and severity of wildfire in Colorado subalpine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17503603PubMed |
Kulakowski D, Veblen TT (2015) Ch. 6 – Bark beetles and high-severity fires in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests. In ‘The ecological importance of mixed-severity fires’. (Eds DA DellaSala, CT Hanson) pp. 149–174. (Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands) Available at https://www.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-802749-3.00006-2 [Verified 9 January 2020]
Kulakowski D, Veblen TT, Bebi P (2003) Effects of fire and spruce beetle outbreak legacies on the disturbance regime of a subalpine forest in Colorado. Journal of Biogeography 30, 1445–1456.
| Effects of fire and spruce beetle outbreak legacies on the disturbance regime of a subalpine forest in Colorado.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulakowski D, Matthews C, Jarvis D, Veblen TT (2013) Compounded disturbances in subalpine forests in western Colorado favour future dominance by quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Journal of Vegetation Science 24, 168–176.
| Compounded disturbances in subalpine forests in western Colorado favour future dominance by quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Li X, Niu J, Xie B (2014) The effect of leaf litter cover on surface runoff and soil erosion in northern China. PLoS One 9, e107789
| The effect of leaf litter cover on surface runoff and soil erosion in northern China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25549353PubMed |
Maher EL, Germino MJ (2006) Microsite differentiation among conifer species during seedling establishment at alpine treeline. Ecoscience 13, 334–341.
| Microsite differentiation among conifer species during seedling establishment at alpine treeline.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maher EL, Germino MJ, Hasselquist NJ (2005) Interactive effects of tree and herb cover on survivorship, physiology, and microclimate of conifer seedlings at the alpine tree-line ecotone. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35, 567–574.
| Interactive effects of tree and herb cover on survivorship, physiology, and microclimate of conifer seedlings at the alpine tree-line ecotone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Massey CL, Wygant ND (1954) ‘Biology and control of the Engelmann spruce beetle in Colorado. USDA Forest Service, Circular no. 944.’ (Washington, DC, USA)
Messier C, Parent S, Bergeron Y (1998) Effects of overstory and understoryvegetation on the understory light environment in mixed boreal forests. Journal of Vegetation Science 9, 511–520.
| Effects of overstory and understoryvegetation on the understory light environment in mixed boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mietkiewicz N, Kulakowski D (2016) Relative importance of climate and mountain pine beetle outbreaks on the occurrence of large wildfires in the western USA. Ecological Applications 26, 2525–2537.
| Relative importance of climate and mountain pine beetle outbreaks on the occurrence of large wildfires in the western USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Montoya JM, Raffaelli D (2010) Climate change, biotic interactions and ecosystem services. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 365, 2013–2018.
| Climate change, biotic interactions and ecosystem services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20513709PubMed |
Nelson KN, Turner MG, Romme WH, Tinker DB (2016) Landscape variation in tree regeneration and snag fall drive fuel loads in 24-year-old post-fire lodgepole pine forests. Ecological Applications 26, 2424–2438.
| Landscape variation in tree regeneration and snag fall drive fuel loads in 24-year-old post-fire lodgepole pine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nilsson MC, Wardle DA (2005) Understory vegetation as a forest ecosystem driver: evidence from the northern Swedish boreal forest. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3, 421–428.
| Understory vegetation as a forest ecosystem driver: evidence from the northern Swedish boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paine RT, Tegner MJ, Johnson EA (1998) Compounded perturbations yield ecological surprises. Ecosystems 1, 535–545.
| Compounded perturbations yield ecological surprises.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pec GJ, Karst J, Sywenky AN, Cigan PW, Erbilgin N, Simard SW, Cahill JF (2015) Rapid increases in forest understory diversity and productivity following a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak in pine forests. PLoS One 10, e0124691
| Rapid increases in forest understory diversity and productivity following a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak in pine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25859663PubMed |
Platt WJ, Beckage B, Doren RF, Slater HH (2002) Interactions of large-scale disturbances: prior fire regimes and hurricane mortality of savanna pines. Ecology 83, 1566–1572.
| Interactions of large-scale disturbances: prior fire regimes and hurricane mortality of savanna pines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rebertus AJ, Burns BR, Veblen TT (1991) Stand dynamics of Pinus flexilis-dominated subalpine forests in the Colorado Front Range. Journal of Vegetation Science 2, 445–458.
| Stand dynamics of Pinus flexilis-dominated subalpine forests in the Colorado Front Range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Remsburg AJ, Turner MG (2006) Amount, position, and age of coarse wood influence litter decomposition in post-fire Pinus contorta stands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2112–2123.
| Amount, position, and age of coarse wood influence litter decomposition in post-fire Pinus contorta stands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roberts MR (2004) Response of the herbaceous layer to natural disturbance in North American forests. Canadian Journal of Botany 82, 1273–1283.
| Response of the herbaceous layer to natural disturbance in North American forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Romme WH, Boyce MS, Gresswell R, Merrill EH, Minshall GW, Whitlock C, Turner MG (2011) Twenty years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires: lessons about disturbance and ecosystems. Ecosystems 14, 1196–1215.
| Twenty years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires: lessons about disturbance and ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rumbaitis-del Rio CM (2004) Compound disturbance in a managed landscape: ecological effects of catastrophic blowdown, salvage-logging, and wildfire in a subalpine forest. PhD thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
Rumbaitis del Rio CM (2006) Changes in understory composition following catastrophic windthrow and salvage logging in a subalpine forest ecosystem. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2943–2954.
| Changes in understory composition following catastrophic windthrow and salvage logging in a subalpine forest ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sayer EJ (2006) Using experimental manipulation to assess the roles of leaf litter in the functioning of forest ecosystems. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 81, 1–31.
| Using experimental manipulation to assess the roles of leaf litter in the functioning of forest ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16460580PubMed |
Seidl R, Rammer W (2017) Climate change amplifies the interactions between wind and bark beetle disturbances in forest landscapes. Landscape Ecology 32, 1485–1498.
| Climate change amplifies the interactions between wind and bark beetle disturbances in forest landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28684889PubMed |
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano G, Wild J, Ascoli D, Petr M, Honkaniemi J, Lexer MJ (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nature Climate Change 7, 395–402.
| Forest disturbances under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28861124PubMed |
Sibold JS, Veblen TT, Chipko K, Lawson L, Mathis E, Scott J (2007) Influences of secondary disturbances on lodgepole pine stand development in Rocky Mountain National Park. Ecological Applications 17, 1638–1655.
| Influences of secondary disturbances on lodgepole pine stand development in Rocky Mountain National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17913129PubMed |
Simard M, Romme WH, Griffin JM, Turner MG (2011) Do mountain pine beetle outbreaks change the probability of active crown fire in lodgepole pine forests? Ecological Monographs 81, 3–24.
| Do mountain pine beetle outbreaks change the probability of active crown fire in lodgepole pine forests?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Snyder GL, Patten LL, Daniels JJ (1987) Mineral resources of the Mount Zirkel Wilderness and northern Park Range vicinity, Jackson and Routt Counties, Colorado. Bulletin 1554. (US Government Publishing Office: Washington, DC, USA) Available at https://www.doi.org/10.3133/b1554 [Verified 9 January 2020]
Turner MG (2010) Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world1. Ecology 91, 2833–2849.
| Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world1.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21058545PubMed |
Turner MG, Dale VH (1998) Comparing large, infrequent disturbances: what have we learned? Ecosystems 1, 493–496.
| Comparing large, infrequent disturbances: what have we learned?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner MG, Reed RA, Romme WH, Finley ME, Knight DH (1997) Above-ground net primary production, leaf area index, and nitrogen dynamics in early post-fire vegetation, Yellowstone National Park. University of Wyoming National Park Service Research Center Annual Report 21, 130–134.
Turner MG, Romme WH, Gardner RH (1999) Prefire heterogeneity, fire severity, and early post-fire plant reestablishment in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. International Journal of Wildland Fire 9, 21–36.
| Prefire heterogeneity, fire severity, and early post-fire plant reestablishment in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner MG, Donato DC, Romme WH (2013) Consequences of spatial heterogeneity for ecosystem services in changing forest landscapes: priorities for future research. Landscape Ecology 28, 1081–1097.
| Consequences of spatial heterogeneity for ecosystem services in changing forest landscapes: priorities for future research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vandenberghe C, Freléchoux F, Buttler A (2008) The influence of competition from herbaceous vegetation and shade on simulated browsing tolerance of coniferous and deciduous saplings. Oikos 117, 415–423.
| The influence of competition from herbaceous vegetation and shade on simulated browsing tolerance of coniferous and deciduous saplings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase Western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313, 940–943.
| Warming and earlier spring increase Western US forest wildfire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16825536PubMed |
Xiong S, Nilsson C (1999) The effects of plant litter on vegetation: a meta-analysis. Journal of Ecology 87, 984–994.
| The effects of plant litter on vegetation: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zhang J, Oliver WW, Busse MD (2006) Growth and development of ponderosa pine on sites of contrasting productivities: relative importance of stand density and shrub competition effects. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2426–2438.
| Growth and development of ponderosa pine on sites of contrasting productivities: relative importance of stand density and shrub competition effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
