Predictors of south-eastern Australian householders’ strengths of intentions to self-evacuate if a wildfire threatens: two theoretical models
Jim McLennan A E , Sean Cowlishaw B , Douglas Paton C , Ruth Beatson A and Glenn Elliott D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Vic. 3086, Australia.
B Division of Health Research, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, LA1 4YW, United Kingdom.
C School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Tas. 7248, Australia.
D Centre For Sustainable Organisations and Work, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Vic. 3001, Australia.
E Corresponding author. Email: j.mclennan@latrobe.edu.au
International Journal of Wildland Fire 23(8) 1176-1188 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF13219
Submitted: 26 December 2013 Accepted: 8 July 2014 Published: 11 November 2014
Abstract
Householder evacuation in the face of a wildfire threat is the survival option advocated by fire agencies. However, late evacuation is common and has resulted in loss of life. The primary aim of this study was to investigate potential predictors of householders’ strength of intention to leave early in response to a bushfire threat warning. A survey of 584 residents of bushfire-prone locations in south-eastern Australia was conducted. Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and protection motivation theory (PMT) were used to explore predictors of strength of householders’ intentions to leave, or to stay and defend following a bushfire warning. TPB was a useful predictor of strength of intention to leave, but PMT was not such a useful predictor of strength of intention to leave. Householder efficacy and self-characterisation were important contributors, whereas perceptions of severity and susceptibility to threat were not found to be significant contributors. Neither model performed well in predicting strength of intention to stay and defend. The findings are discussed in relation to community wildfire safety research and practice.
Additional keywords: natural hazards, stay or go policy.
References
Ajzen I (1991) The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50, 179–211.| The theory of planned behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ajzen I, Fishbein M (1980) ‘Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour’ (Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ).
Aldersley A, Murray SJ, Cornel SE (2011) Global and regional analysis of climate and human drivers of wildfire. The Science of the Total Environment 409, 3472–3481.
| Global and regional analysis of climate and human drivers of wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXotlGhs7g%3D&md5=a371ddea2b35c0e8b564608e8a93f3ddCAS | 21689843PubMed |
Armitage CJ, Conner M (2001) Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analytic review. The British Journal of Social Psychology 40, 471–499.
| Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analytic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38%2FmvFWguw%3D%3D&md5=c14be74e85a2638412c9ee93437192c4CAS | 11795063PubMed |
Australasian Fire and Emergency Services Authorities Council (2010) Bushfires and community safety: position; version 4.1. (AFAC: East Melbourne). Available at http://knowledgeweb.afac.com.au/positions/documents/AFAC_Position_Bushfires_Community_Safety_v4.1.pdf [Verified 3 September 2013]
Australasian Fire and Emergency Services Authorities Council (2012) Bushfires and community safety: position; version 5.0. (AFAC: East Melbourne). Available at http://www.afac.com.au/docs/position/bushfires-community-safety.pdf?sfvrsn=20 [Verified 3 December 2013]
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011) Community profiles. Available at http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/communityprofiles [Verified 24 August 2013]
Australian Fire Authorities Council (2005) Position paper on bushfires and community safety. (AFAC: East Melbourne) Available at http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/Documents/Document-files/Exhibits/TEN-001-001-0077 [Verified 3 September 2013]
Bassi S, Kettunen M (2008) Forest fires: Causes and contributing factors in Europe. (Policy Department A: Economic and Scientific Policy, European Parliament, Brussels). Available at athttp://www.ieep.eu/assets/392/forest_fires_report.pdf [Verified 16 August 2013]
Bates BR, Quick BL, Kloss AA (2009) Antecedents of intention to help mitigate wildfire: implications for campaigns promoting wildfire mitigation to the general public in the wildland–urban interface. Safety Science 47, 374–381.
| Antecedents of intention to help mitigate wildfire: implications for campaigns promoting wildfire mitigation to the general public in the wildland–urban interface.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Beatson R, McLennan J (2011) What applied psychology theories might contribute to community bushfire safety research after Victoria’s ‘Black Saturday’. Australian Psychologist 46, 171–182.
| What applied psychology theories might contribute to community bushfire safety research after Victoria’s ‘Black Saturday’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bergkvist L, Rossiter JR (2007) The predictive validity of multiple-item versus single-item measures of the same constructs Journal of Marketing Research 44, 184
| The predictive validity of multiple-item versus single-item measures of the same constructsCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blanchi R, Leonard J, Haynes K, Opie K, James M, Oliveira FD (2014) Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1901–2011. Environmental Science & Policy 37, 192–203.
| Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1901–2011.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bracmort K (2012 Wildfire damage to homes and resources: understanding causes and reducing losses. (Congressional Research Service: Washington DC). Available at http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34517.pdf [Verified 21 August 2013]
Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (2010) Bushfire CRC – communicating risk. (Bushfire CRC: Melbourne). Available at: http://www.bushfirecrc.com/research/program-2 [Verified 24 August 2013]
Carcioppolo N, Jensen J, Wilson R, Collins W, Carrion M, Linnemeier G (2013) Examining HPV threat-to-efficacy ratios in the extended parallel process model. Health Communication 28, 20–28.
| Examining HPV threat-to-efficacy ratios in the extended parallel process model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23330855PubMed |
Champ JG, Brook JJ, Williams DR (2012) Stakeholder understandings of wildfire mitigation: a case of shared and contested meanings. Environmental Management 50, 581–597.
| Stakeholder understandings of wildfire mitigation: a case of shared and contested meanings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22885875PubMed |
Chen K, McAneney J (2004) Quantifying bushfire penetration into urban areas in Australia. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L12212
| Quantifying bushfire penetration into urban areas in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Christian J, Armitage CJ, Abrams D (2003) Predicting uptake of housing services: the role of self-categorization in the theory of planned behaviour. Current Psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.) 22, 206–217.
| Predicting uptake of housing services: the role of self-categorization in the theory of planned behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cismaru M, Lavack AM (2007) Interaction effects and combinatorial rules governing protection motivation theory variables: A new model. Marketing Theory 7, 249–270.
| Interaction effects and combinatorial rules governing protection motivation theory variables: A new model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cismaru M, Lavack A, Hadjistavropoulos H, Dorsch K (2008) Understanding health behavior: an integrated model for social marketers. Social Marketing Quarterly 14, 2–32.
| Understanding health behavior: an integrated model for social marketers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohn PJ, Carroll MS, Kumagai Y (2006) Evacuation behavior during wildfires: results of three case studies. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 21, 29–48.
Cooke R, French DP (2008) How well do the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour predict intentions and attendance at screening programs? A meta-analysis. Psychology & Health 23, 745–765.
| How well do the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour predict intentions and attendance at screening programs? A meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Council of Australian Governments (2011) National strategy for disaster resilience. (Attorney General’s Department, Barton ACT). Available at http://www.ag.gov.au/EmergencyManagement/Documents/NationalStrategyforDisasterResilience.PDF [Verified 26 April 2014]
Country Fire Authority (2013) Fire ready kit – updated 2013. Available at http://www.cfa.vic.gov.au/fm_files/attachments/plan_and_prepare/frk_2013/4713_CFA_2014_FireReadyKit_web.pdf [Verified 18 August 2014]
Cova TJ, Drews FA, Siebeneck LK, Musters A (2009) Protective actions in wildfires: evacuate or shelter in place. Natural Hazards Review 10, 151–162.
| Protective actions in wildfires: evacuate or shelter in place.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coxe S, West SG, Aitken LS (2009) The analysis of count data: a gentle introduction to Poisson regression and its alternatives. Journal of Personality Assessment 91, 121–136.
| The analysis of count data: a gentle introduction to Poisson regression and its alternatives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19205933PubMed |
Duval TS, Mulilis J-P (1999) A person relative to event (PrE.) approach to negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29, 495–516.
| A person relative to event (PrE.) approach to negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Enders CK, Bandalos DL (2001) The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling 8, 430–457.
Fleeger WE (2008) Collaborating for success: community wildfire protection planning in the Arizona White Mountains. Journal of Forestry 106, 78–82.
Floyd DL, Prentice-Dunn S, Rogers RW (2000) A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30, 407–429.
| A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fu AS (2012) The façade of safety in California’s shelter-in-place homes: history, wildfire and social consequences. Critical Sociology
| The façade of safety in California’s shelter-in-place homes: history, wildfire and social consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gebhardt W, Maes S (2001) Integrating social-psychological frameworks for health behaviour research. American Journal of Health Behavior 25, 528–536.
| Integrating social-psychological frameworks for health behaviour research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MnnsVGnsg%3D%3D&md5=dba019da76e86a03ba51b5020e52d3f1CAS | 11720300PubMed |
Gill AM, Stephens SL (2009) Scientific and social challenges for the management of fire-prone wildland–urban interfaces. Environmental Research Letters 4, 034014
| Scientific and social challenges for the management of fire-prone wildland–urban interfaces.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill AM, Stephens SL, Cary GJ (2013) The worldwide ‘wildfire’ problem. Ecological Applications 23, 438–454.
| The worldwide ‘wildfire’ problem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23634593PubMed |
Godin G, Kok G (1996) The theory of planned behavior: a review of its applications to health-related behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion 11, 87–98.
| The theory of planned behavior: a review of its applications to health-related behaviors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2s7jt1OltA%3D%3D&md5=66348329e9ebed58ba395547ed403ebdCAS | 10163601PubMed |
Goldenberg JL, Arndt J (2008) The implications of death for health: a terror management health model for health promotion. Psychological Review 115, 1032–1053.
| The implications of death for health: a terror management health model for health promotion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18954213PubMed |
Hagger MS, Chatzisarantis LD (2009) Integrating the theory of planned behaviour and self-determination theory in health behaviour: a meta-analysis. British Journal of Health Psychology 14, 275–302.
| Integrating the theory of planned behaviour and self-determination theory in health behaviour: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18926008PubMed |
Hall TE, Slothower M (2009) Cognitive factors affecting homeowners’ reactions to defensible space in the Oregon coast range. Society & Natural Resources 22, 95–110.
| Cognitive factors affecting homeowners’ reactions to defensible space in the Oregon coast range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Handmer J, O’Neil S, Killalea D (2010) Review of fatalities in the February 7, 2009, bushfires, (Centre For Risk and Community Safety, RMIT University and Bushfire CRC: Melbourne). Available at http://www.bushfirecrc.com/managed/resource/review-fatalities-february-7.pdf [Verified 20 August 2013]
Handy RM (2013, 14 May). Experts: communities must step up in the face of wildfire risk. The Gazette: Colorado. Available at http://gazette.com/experts-communities-must-step-up-in-face-of-wildfire-risk/article/153419[Verified 16 August 2013]
Haynes K, Handmer J, McAneney J, Tibbits A, Coates L (2010) Australian bushfire fatalities 1900–2008: exploring trends in relation to the ‘Prepare, stay and defend or leave early’ policy. Environmental Science & Policy 13, 185–194.
| Australian bushfire fatalities 1900–2008: exploring trends in relation to the ‘Prepare, stay and defend or leave early’ policy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindell MK, Arlikatti S, Prater CS (2009) Why do people do what they do to protect against earthquake risk: perception of hazard adjustment attributes. Risk Analysis 29, 1072–1088.
| Why do people do what they do to protect against earthquake risk: perception of hazard adjustment attributes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19508448PubMed |
Liu Y, Stanturf J, Goodrick S (2010) Trends in global wildfire potential in a changing climate. Forest Ecology and Management 259, 685–697.
| Trends in global wildfire potential in a changing climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liu Y, Goodrick S, Heilman W (2013) Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: wildfire–climate interactions. Forest Ecology and Management
| Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: wildfire–climate interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | (In press)
Maddux J, Rogers R (1983) Protection motivation theory and self-efficacy: a revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19, 469–479.
| Protection motivation theory and self-efficacy: a revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin IM, Bender H, Raish C (2007) What motivates individuals to protect themselves from risks. Risk Analysis 27, 887–900.
| What motivates individuals to protect themselves from risks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17958499PubMed |
McCaffrey S, Kumagai Y (2007) No need to reinvent the wheel: applying existing social science theories to wildfire. In ‘People, Fire and Forests: A Synthesis of Wildfire Social Science’. (Eds T Daniel, M Carroll, C Moseley, C Raish) pp. 12–36. (Oregon State University Press: Corvallis, OR).
McCaffrey S, Rhodes A (2009) Public response to wildfire: is the Australian ‘stay and defend or leave early’ approach an option for wildfire management in the United States? Journal of Forestry 107, 9–15.
McCaffrey SM, Winter G (2011) Understanding homeowner preparation and intended actions when threatened by a wildfire. In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on the Human Dimensions of Wildland Fire’, 26–29 April 2010, San Antonio, TX. (Eds McCaffrey SM Fisher CL) USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, General Technical Report NRS-P-84, pp. 88–95 (Newtown Square, PA ) Available at http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/38521 [Verified 3 September 2013]
McCaffrey S, Toman E, Stidham M, Shindler B (2013) Social science research related to wildfire management: an overview of recent findings and future research needs. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 15–24.
| Social science research related to wildfire management: an overview of recent findings and future research needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXit1egtLY%3D&md5=8dcbccf4cb93141a8a9d487f642661cbCAS |
McCaffrey S, Rhodes A, Stidham M (2014) Wildfire evacuation and its alternatives: perspectives from four United States communities. International Journal of Wildland Fire
| Wildfire evacuation and its alternatives: perspectives from four United States communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McFarlane BL, McGee TK, Faulkner H (2011) Complexity of homeowner wildfire risk mitigation: an integration of hazard theories. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 921–931.
| Complexity of homeowner wildfire risk mitigation: an integration of hazard theories.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLennan J, Elliott G (2013) ‘Wait and see’: the elephant in community bushfire safety room? In ‘Proceedings of the AFAC/Bushfire CRC Research Forum’, September 2012, Perth, WA. (Eds RP Thornton, LJ Wright) pp. 56–69. (Bushfire CRC: East Melbourne) Available at http://www.bushfirecrc.com/sites/default/files/managed/resource/final_mclennan_j.pdf [Verified 2 September 2013]
McLennan J, Elliot G, Omodei M, McNeill I, Dunlop P, Suss J (2011). Bushfire survival-related decision making: what the stress and performance research literature tells us. In ‘Proceedings of Bushfire CRC & AFAC 2011 Conference Science Day’ Vol. 1, pp. 307–319 (Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, Melbourne). Available at http://www.bushfirecrc.com/sites/default/files/managed/resource/307-319_bushfire_survival-related_decision_making.pdf [Verified 26 April 2014]
McLennan J, Elliott G, Omodei M (2012a) Householder decision making under imminent wildfire threat: stay and defend or leave? International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, 915–925.
| Householder decision making under imminent wildfire threat: stay and defend or leave?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLennan J, Elliott G, Beatson R (2012b) Householders’ stated bushfire survival intentions under hypothetical threat: factors associated with choosing to leave, or stay and defend, or wait and see. (School of Psychological Science La Trobe University and Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, Melbourne). Available at http://www.bushfirecrc.com/sites/default/files/managed/resource/final_-_community_bushfire_intentions_survey_report_revised_2012hg-charts.pdf [Verified 22 June 2014]
McLennan J, Elliott G, Omodei M, Whittaker J (2013) Householders’ safety-related decisions, plans, actions and outcomes during the 7 February 2009 Victorian (Australia) wildfires. Fire Safety Journal 61, 175–184.
| Householders’ safety-related decisions, plans, actions and outcomes during the 7 February 2009 Victorian (Australia) wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McNeill I, Dunlop P, Heath J, Skinner J, Morrison D (2013) Expecting the unexpected: predicting physiological and psychological wildfire preparedness from perceived risk, responsibility and obstacles. Risk Analysis 33, 1829–1843.
| Expecting the unexpected: predicting physiological and psychological wildfire preparedness from perceived risk, responsibility and obstacles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23551072PubMed |
Mell WE, Manzello SL, Maranghides A, Butry D, Rehm RG (2010) The wildland–urban interface fire problem – current approaches and research needs. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 238–251.
| The wildland–urban interface fire problem – current approaches and research needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Milne S, Sheeran P, Orbell S (2000) Prediction and intervention in health-related behavior: a meta-analytic review of protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30, 106–143.
| Prediction and intervention in health-related behavior: a meta-analytic review of protection motivation theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moreira F, Viedma O, Arianoutsou M, Curt T, Koutsias N, Rigolot E, Barbati A, Corona P, Vaz P, Xanthopoulos G, Mouillot F, Bilgili E (2011) Landscape–wildfire interactions in southern Europe: implications for landscape management. Journal of Environmental Management 92, 2389–2402.
| Landscape–wildfire interactions in southern Europe: implications for landscape management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21741757PubMed |
Mozumder P, Raheem N, Talberth J, Berrens RP (2008) Investigating intended evacuation from wildfires in the wildland–urban interface: application of a bivariate probit model. Forest Policy and Economics 10, 415–423.
| Investigating intended evacuation from wildfires in the wildland–urban interface: application of a bivariate probit model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Munro S, Lewin S, Swart T, Volmink J (2007) A review of health behaviour theories: how useful are these for developing interventions to promote long-term adherence for TB and HIV/AIDS? BMC Public Health 7, 104
| A review of health behaviour theories: how useful are these for developing interventions to promote long-term adherence for TB and HIV/AIDS?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17561997PubMed |
Mutch RW (2007) Faces: the story of the victims of southern California's 2003 fire siege. (Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center: Tucson, AZ). Available at http://www.wildfirelessons.net/documents/faces.pdf [Verified 4 September 2013]
Mutch RW, Keller P (2010) Case study: lives lost lessons learned: the victims and survivors of the 2005–2006 Texas and Oklahoma wildfires. (Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center: Tucson, AZ.) Available at https://www.llis.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/OK_TX_2005_06_Case_Study.pdf [Verified 4 September 2013]
Mutch R, Rogers M, Stephens S, Gill A (2011) Protecting lives and property in the wildland–urban interface: communities in Montana and Southern California adopt Australian paradigm. Fire Technology 47, 357–377.
| Protecting lives and property in the wildland–urban interface: communities in Montana and Southern California adopt Australian paradigm.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Norman P, Boer H, Seydel ER (2005). Protection motivation theory. In ‘Predicting Health Behavior’ (Eds M Connor, P Norman) pp. 81–125. (McGraw-Hill International: New York, NY)
Paek H-J, Hilyard K, Freimuth V, Barge J, Mindlin L (2010) Theory-based approaches to understanding public emergency preparedness: implications for effective health and risk communication. Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives 15, 428–444.
| Theory-based approaches to understanding public emergency preparedness: implications for effective health and risk communication.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Partners in Protection (2003) ‘FireSmart: Protecting your Community from Wildfire’, 2nd edn. (Partners in Protection: Edmonton, AB).
Paton D, McClure J (2013) ‘Preparing for Disaster: Building Household and Community Capacity’. (Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, IL)
Paton D, Wright L (2008) Preparing for bushfires: the public education challenges facing fire agencies. In ‘Community Bushfire Safety’ (Eds J Handmer, K Haynes) pp. 117–128 (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne).
Paton D, Burgelt P, Prior T (2008) Living with bushfire risk: social and environmental influences on preparedness. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 23, 41–48. Available at http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/AJEM%20Bushfire%20Risks%20Aug08%2007.pdf [Verified 29 September 2014]
Paveglio TB, Carrol MS, Jakes PJ (2008) Alternatives to evacuation – protecting public safety during wildland fire. Journal of Forestry 106, 65–70.
Paveglio TB, Carroll MS, Jakes PJ (2010) Adoption and perception of shelter-in-place in California’s Ranch Santa Fe fire district. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 677–688.
| Adoption and perception of shelter-in-place in California’s Ranch Santa Fe fire district.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paveglio TB, Boyd AD, Carroll MS (2012) Wildfire evacuation and its alternatives in a post-Black Saturday landscape: catchy slogans and cautionary tales. Environmental Hazards 11, 52–70.
| Wildfire evacuation and its alternatives in a post-Black Saturday landscape: catchy slogans and cautionary tales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prior T, Eriksen C (2012) What does being ‘well prepared’ for wildfire mean? In ‘Wildfire and Community: Facilitating Preparedness and Resilience’. (Eds. D Paton, F Tedim) pp. 190–206. (Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, IL)
Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC, Norcross JC (1992) In search of how people change: applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist 47, 1102–1114
Proudley M (2008) Fire, families and decisions. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 23, 37–43. Available at http://www.bushfirecrc.com/managed/resource/cproudley.pdf [Verified 29 September 2014]
Rise J, Sheeran P, Hukkelberg S (2010) The role of self-identity in the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40, 1085–1105.
| The role of self-identity in the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rivis A, Sheeran P (2003) Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analysis. Current Psychology 22, 218–233.
| Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rivis A, Sheeran P, Armitage CJ (2009) Expanding the affective and normative components of the theory of planned behavior: a meta-analysis of anticipated affect and moral norms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 39, 2985–3019.
| Expanding the affective and normative components of the theory of planned behavior: a meta-analysis of anticipated affect and moral norms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rogers RW (1983) Cognitive and physiological processes in fear-based attitude change: a revised theory of protection motivation. In ‘Social Psychophysiology: A Sourcebook’.(Eds J Cacioppo, R Petty) pp. 153–176. (Guilford Press: New York).
Smith E (2010) Fire adapted communities: the next step in wildfire preparedness. Available at http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/nr/2010/sp1010.pdf [Verified 2 September 2013]
Sorensen JH, Shumpert BC, Vogt BH (2004) Planning for protective action decision making: evacuate or shelter in place. Journal of Hazardous Materials 109, 1–11.
| Planning for protective action decision making: evacuate or shelter in place.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXksFKhtLo%3D&md5=fa18fbd4a64d71c7f9c338a18fbd1daaCAS | 15177740PubMed |
Steelman TA, Burke CA (2007) Is wildfire policy in the United States sustainable? Journal of Forestry 105, 67–72.
Stewart SI, Radeloff VC, Hammer RB, Hawbaker TJ (2007) Defining the wildland–urban interface. Journal of Forestry 105, 201–207.
Teague B, McLeod R, Pascoe S (2010) 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission final report. (State Government of Victoria: Melbourne) Available at http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/Commission-Reports/Final-Report [Verified 2 September 2013]
Terry DJ, Hogg MA, White K (1999) The theory of planned behaviour: self-identity, social identity and group norms. The British Journal of Social Psychology 38, 225–244.
| The theory of planned behaviour: self-identity, social identity and group norms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10520477PubMed |
Tibbits A, Whittaker J (2007) Stay and defend or leave early: policy, problems and experiences during the 2003 Victorian bushfires. Environmental Hazards 7, 283–290.
| Stay and defend or leave early: policy, problems and experiences during the 2003 Victorian bushfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tibbits A, Handmer J, Haynes K, Lowe T, Whittaker J (2008) Prepare, stay and defend or leave early. In ‘Community Bushfire Safety’ (Eds J Handmer K Haynes) pp. 59–71 (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne).
United States Department of the Interior and United States Department of Agriculture (2001) Urban wildland interface communities within vicinity of federal land that are at high risk from wildfire. Federal Register 66, 751–777.
Vogt CA, Winter G, Fried JS (2005) Predicting homeowners' approval of fuel management at the wildland–urban interface using the theory of reasoned action. Society & Natural Resources 18, 337–354.
| Predicting homeowners' approval of fuel management at the wildland–urban interface using the theory of reasoned action.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whittaker J, Haynes K, Handmer J, McLennan J (2013) Community safety during the 2009 Australian ‘Black Saturday’ bushfires: an analysis of household preparedness and response. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 841–849.
| Community safety during the 2009 Australian ‘Black Saturday’ bushfires: an analysis of household preparedness and response.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson AAG, Ferguson IS (1984) Fight or flee? A case study of the Mount Macedon bushfire. Australian Forestry 47, 230–236.
| Fight or flee? A case study of the Mount Macedon bushfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson AAG, Ferguson IS (1986) Predicting the probability of house survival during bushfires. Journal of Environmental Management 23, 259–270.
Witte K (1994) Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs 61, 113–134.
| Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
