Pyrogenic carbon: the influence of particle size and chemical composition on soil carbon release
Meaghan E. Jenkins A D , Tina L. Bell A C , Jaymie Norris B and Mark A. Adams A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
B Department of Environment and Primary Industries, 8 Nicholson Street, East Melbourne, Vic. 3002, Australia.
C Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, 340 Albert Street, East Melbourne, Vic. 3004, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: meaghan.jenkins@sydney.edu.au
International Journal of Wildland Fire 23(7) 1027-1033 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF13189
Submitted: 11 November 2013 Accepted: 18 May 2014 Published: 14 August 2014
Abstract
In many countries, prescribed or planned burning is increasingly used as a management strategy to reduce the risk and negative effects of wildfires. As a by-product of this practice, ash, charcoal and partially charred material (referred to here as pyrogenic carbon, PC) is created. The amount and type of PC produced and fate of this form of carbon is uncertain. PC is often assumed to be resistant to chemical and microbial degradation and therefore potentially persistent in soils for hundreds or thousands of years. As a result, PC has been proposed as a sink for carbon and promoted for its storage potential in soil. We hypothesised that the differing components of PC would interact differently with soil processes and have varying potential for carbon storage. We analysed the chemical composition of PC produced by prescribed fire in a eucalypt forest and measured its effect on soil respiration. A laboratory incubation experiment showed that when PC of differing size fractions was added to soil, only the smallest size fraction (<1 mm; ash) increased rates of soil respiration, whereas larger fractions (charcoal) had little effect. The carbon contained in charcoal was resistant to microbial degradation and had little effect on microbial processes such as respiration. In general, fires of greater intensity will produce greater proportional amounts of smaller size particles and will likely result in faster rates of respiration than fires of lesser intensity. Therefore, lower intensity fires may ultimately have a greater capacity for soil carbon sequestration than those of higher intensity.
Additional keywords: nitrogen, prescribed fire, priming effect, soil organic content, wildfire.
References
Adams MA (2013) Mega-fires, tipping points and ecosystem services: managing forests and woodlands in an uncertain future. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 250–261.| Mega-fires, tipping points and ecosystem services: managing forests and woodlands in an uncertain future.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
AFE (2009) The role of fire in managing long-term carbon stores: key challenges. In ‘4th International Fire Ecology and Management Congress: Fire as a Global Process’, 30 November–4 December 2009, Savannah, GA, USA. (Association of Fire Ecology) Available at http://fireecology.org/docs/AFE_2009_Position_Paper_Carbon.pdf [Verified 27 June 2014]
Bååth E, Anderson TH (2003) Comparison of soil fungal/bacterial ratios in a pH gradient using physiological and PLFA-based techniques. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 35, 955–963.
| Comparison of soil fungal/bacterial ratios in a pH gradient using physiological and PLFA-based techniques.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bååth E, Arnebrant K (1994) Growth rate and response of bacterial communities to pH in limed and ash treated forest soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 26, 995–1001.
| Growth rate and response of bacterial communities to pH in limed and ash treated forest soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldock JA, Smernik RJ (2002) Chemical composition and bioavailability of thermally altered Pinus resinosa (Red pine) wood. Organic Geochemistry 33, 1093–1109.
| Chemical composition and bioavailability of thermally altered Pinus resinosa (Red pine) wood.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XmtlWjurk%3D&md5=9d7d04abe9e50960eefd70192b515ed5CAS |
Carlsson M, Andren O, Stenstrom J, Kirchmann H, Katterer T (2012) Charcoal application to arable soil: effects on CO2 emissions. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 43, 2262–2273.
| Charcoal application to arable soil: effects on CO2 emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XpsVOmu7Y%3D&md5=6b94338b6abd334e0dee30beb5afece4CAS |
Cerdà A, Doerr SH (2008) The effect of ash and needle cover on surface runoff and erosion in the immediate post-fire period. Catena 74, 256–263.
| The effect of ash and needle cover on surface runoff and erosion in the immediate post-fire period.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chambers DP, Attiwill PM (1994) The ash-bed effect in Eucalyptus regnans forest: chemical, physical and microbial changes in soil after heating or partial sterilisation. Australian Journal of Botany 42, 739–749.
| The ash-bed effect in Eucalyptus regnans forest: chemical, physical and microbial changes in soil after heating or partial sterilisation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXktFKntbc%3D&md5=95de8a7b21f88476772f3afd48db47ceCAS |
Craine JM, Fierer N, McLauchlan KK (2010) Widespread coupling between the rate and temperature sensitivity of organic matter decay. Nature Geoscience 3, 854–857.
| Widespread coupling between the rate and temperature sensitivity of organic matter decay.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVyhs7bE&md5=729d40ee17c78ae29c103ef69f96f5f5CAS |
Crutzen PJ, Andreae MO (1990) Biomass burning in the tropics: impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles. Science 250, 1669–1678.
| Biomass burning in the tropics: impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXmsF2htQ%3D%3D&md5=c83db465150b8bb4b9933bf72d9b7cfdCAS | 17734705PubMed |
DeLuca TH, Nilsson MC, Zackrisson O (2002) Nitrogen mineralization and phenol accumulation along a fire chronosequence in northern Sweden. Oecologia 133, 206–214.
| Nitrogen mineralization and phenol accumulation along a fire chronosequence in northern Sweden.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fernández-Calviño D, Bååth E (2010) Growth response of the bacterial community to pH in soils differing in pH. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 73, 149–156.
Fierer N, Jackson RB (2006) The diversity and biogeography of soil bacterial communities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103, 626–631.
| The diversity and biogeography of soil bacterial communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtVOiurY%3D&md5=d09b44edf61c5092bdbb8f5f96834d29CAS | 16407148PubMed |
Forbes MS, Raison RJ, Skjemstad JO (2006) Formation, transformation and transport of black carbon (charcoal) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The Science of the Total Environment 370, 190–206.
| Formation, transformation and transport of black carbon (charcoal) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XpvF2nsrc%3D&md5=abede4ad9d1231b8405acdfebc3ec1d4CAS | 16860374PubMed |
Glaser B, Lehmann J, Zech W (2002) Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review. Biology and Fertility of Soils 35, 219–230.
| Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xkt1Wmsrc%3D&md5=49a6906b7ddc3273b8d6aed725c9ee5aCAS |
Hamer U, Marschner B (2005) Priming effects in different soil types induced by fructose, alanine, oxalic acid and catechol additions. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 37, 445–454.
| Priming effects in different soil types induced by fructose, alanine, oxalic acid and catechol additions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXhtFGgsrnL&md5=cc06767a756a281b165854fa717ae034CAS |
Hamer U, Marschner B, Brodowski S, Amelung W (2004) Interactive priming of black carbon and glucose mineralisation. Organic Geochemistry 35, 823–830.
| Interactive priming of black carbon and glucose mineralisation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXksFKju7k%3D&md5=c4517ed35e250b2b4bdd37464247ab34CAS |
Hammes K, Schmidt MWI, Smernik RJ, Currie LA, Ball WP, Nguyen TH, Louchouarn P, Houel S, Gustafsson Ö, Elmquist M, Cornelissen G, Skjemstad JO, Masiello CA, Song J, Peng P-a, Mitra S, Dunn JC, Hatcher PG, Hockaday WC, Smith DM, Hartkopf-Fröder C, Böhmer A, Lüer B, Huebert BJ, Amelung W, Brodowski S, Huang L, Zhang W, Gschwend PM, Flores-Cervantes DX, Largeau C, Rouzaud J-N, Rumpel C, Guggenberger G, Kaiser K, Rodionov A, Gonzalez-Vila FJ, Gonzalez-Perez JA, de la Rosa JM, Manning DAC, López-Capél E, Ding L (2007) Comparison of quantification methods to measure fire-derived (black/elemental) carbon in soils and sediments using reference materials from soil, water, sediment and the atmosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 21, GB3016
| Comparison of quantification methods to measure fire-derived (black/elemental) carbon in soils and sediments using reference materials from soil, water, sediment and the atmosphere.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hart SC, DeLuca TH, Newman GS, MacKenzie MD, Boyle SI (2005) Post-fire vegetative dynamics as drivers of microbial community structure and function in forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management 220, 166–184.
| Post-fire vegetative dynamics as drivers of microbial community structure and function in forest soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hazelton PA (1992) Soil landscapes of the Kiama 1 : 100 000 sheet. (Department of Conservation and Land Management incorporating the Soil Conservation Service of NSW: Sydney)
Hilscher A, Heister K, Siewert C, Knicker H (2009) Mineralisation and structural changes during the initial phase of microbial degradation of pyrogenic plant residues in soil. Organic Geochemistry 40, 332–342.
| Mineralisation and structural changes during the initial phase of microbial degradation of pyrogenic plant residues in soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXitFCisLo%3D&md5=0d83a45ead459c0115d73e746650e422CAS |
Humphreys FR, Lambert MJ (1965) An examination of a forest site which exhibited the ash-bed effect. Australian Journal of Soil Research 3, 81–94.
| An examination of a forest site which exhibited the ash-bed effect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jenkins ME, Adams MA (2010) Vegetation type determines heterotrophic respiration in sub-alpine Australian ecosystems. Global Change Biology 16, 209–219.
| Vegetation type determines heterotrophic respiration in sub-alpine Australian ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kaal J, Brodowski S, Baldock JA, Nierop KGJ, Cortizas AM (2008) Characterisation of aged black carbon using pyrolysis-GC/MS, thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM), direct and cross-polarisation 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (DP/CP NMR) and the benzenepolycarboxylic acid (BPCA) method. Organic Geochemistry 39, 1415–1426.
| Characterisation of aged black carbon using pyrolysis-GC/MS, thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM), direct and cross-polarisation 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (DP/CP NMR) and the benzenepolycarboxylic acid (BPCA) method.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtFSqsbfP&md5=44524f34151d6eff2aa5fe7eecb9c628CAS |
Khanna PK, Raison RJ, Falkiner RA (1994) Chemical properties of ash derived from Eucalyptus litter and its effects on forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management 66, 107–125.
| Chemical properties of ash derived from Eucalyptus litter and its effects on forest soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Khodadad CLM, Zimmerman AR, Green SJ, Uthandi S, Foster JS (2011) Taxa-specific changes in soil microbial community composition induced by pyrogenic carbon amendments. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 43, 385–392.
| Taxa-specific changes in soil microbial community composition induced by pyrogenic carbon amendments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtlGmtA%3D%3D&md5=2fa532ad395d2eedcc9c233e48cdeb88CAS |
Knicker H (2007) How does fire affect the nature and stability of soil organic nitrogen and carbon? A review. Biogeochemistry 85, 91–118.
| How does fire affect the nature and stability of soil organic nitrogen and carbon? A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXntlajs7c%3D&md5=162c92e2ca836e36a467f705b98f1fa0CAS |
Krull ES, Swanston CW, Skjemstad JO, McGowan JA (2006) Importance of charcoal in determining the age and chemistry of organic carbon in surface soils. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, G04001
| Importance of charcoal in determining the age and chemistry of organic carbon in surface soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kuzyakov Y, Subbotina I, Chen H, Bogomolova I, Xu X (2009) Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14C labelling. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 41, 210–219.
| Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14C labelling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXotV2isg%3D%3D&md5=591e5de14d7ce42291be80fca5a9d325CAS |
Lehmann J (2007) A handful of carbon. Nature 447, 143–144.
| A handful of carbon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXltVGktbc%3D&md5=583c0dd808626b8ca3bdcf9b1ba6ba65CAS | 17495905PubMed |
Lehmann J, Pereira da Silva J, Steiner C, Nehls T, Zech W, Glaser B (2003) Nutrient availability and leaching in an archaeological Anthrosol and a Ferralsol of the Central Amazon basin: fertilizer, manure and charcoal amendments. Plant and Soil 249, 343–357.
| Nutrient availability and leaching in an archaeological Anthrosol and a Ferralsol of the Central Amazon basin: fertilizer, manure and charcoal amendments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXit1Citrc%3D&md5=e91684003ff5994b015be4159b83acd6CAS |
Lehmann J, Skjemstad J, Sohi S, Carter J, Barson M, Falloon P, Coleman K, Woodbury P, Krull E (2008) Australian climate-carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon. Nature Geoscience 1, 832–835.
| Australian climate-carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsVChurvF&md5=51b5a6a731d5dced0906ed131f97e167CAS |
Luo Y, Durenkamp M, De Nobili M, Lin Q, Brookes PC (2011) Short term soil priming effects and the mineralisation of biochar following its incorporation to soils of different pH. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 43, 2304–2314.
| Short term soil priming effects and the mineralisation of biochar following its incorporation to soils of different pH.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtF2rsLnM&md5=4fe54be99b8d0d15ed44390f4ddc7926CAS |
Mack MC, Bret-Harte MS, Hollingsworth TN, Jandt RR, Schuur EAG, Shaver GR, Verbyla DL (2011) Carbon loss from an unprecedented Arctic tundra wildfire. Nature 475, 489–492.
| Carbon loss from an unprecedented Arctic tundra wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXpsFajtbg%3D&md5=f4988c652f015e1687ecec32b2225b60CAS | 21796209PubMed |
Major J, Rondon M, Molina D, Riha S, Lehmann J (2010a) Maize yield and nutrition during 4 years after biochar application to a Colombian savanna oxisol. Plant and Soil 333, 117–128.
| Maize yield and nutrition during 4 years after biochar application to a Colombian savanna oxisol.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXovFCjtrk%3D&md5=4ea4317e572e5bd8193f8744e0077883CAS |
Major J, Lehmann J, Rondon M, Goodale C (2010b) Fate of soil-applied black carbon: downward migration, leaching and soil respiration. Global Change Biology 16, 1366–1379.
| Fate of soil-applied black carbon: downward migration, leaching and soil respiration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nocentini C, Certini G, Knicker H, Francioso O, Rumpel C (2010a) Nature and reactivity of charcoal produced and added to soil during wildfire are particle-size dependent. Organic Geochemistry 41, 682–689.
| Nature and reactivity of charcoal produced and added to soil during wildfire are particle-size dependent.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmvFygt7Y%3D&md5=dc7c373ab43260553ced6f218c9492d3CAS |
Nocentini C, Guenet B, Di Mattia E, Certini G, Bardoux G, Rumpel C (2010b) Charcoal mineralisation potential of microbial inocula from burned and unburned forest soil with and without substrate addition. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 42, 1472–1478.
| Charcoal mineralisation potential of microbial inocula from burned and unburned forest soil with and without substrate addition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXptlCru74%3D&md5=1d8be9fa2cdf3f1400328625e970e39fCAS |
Oguntunde P, Fosu M, Ajayi A, Giesen N (2004) Effects of charcoal production on maize yield, chemical properties and texture of soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils 39, 295–299.
| Effects of charcoal production on maize yield, chemical properties and texture of soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXhsl2hsLk%3D&md5=103cd7b6bb0c79292e884b7d8fa8803cCAS |
Page SE, Siegert F, Rieley JO, Boehm H-DV, Jaya A, Limin S (2002) The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature 420, 61–65.
| The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XosVCmu78%3D&md5=4f6f9e86aa4067ccac88581020b77050CAS | 12422213PubMed |
Pietikainen J, Kiikkila O, Fritze H (2000) Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus. Oikos 89, 231–242.
| Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjvVCgt7o%3D&md5=60d0434d1b6a9d6ba8febaaf5cf9ad71CAS |
Schmidt MWI, Noack AG (2000) Black carbon in soils and sediments: analysis, distribution, implications, and current challenges. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 14, 777–793.
| Black carbon in soils and sediments: analysis, distribution, implications, and current challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmsVymt7s%3D&md5=f93e5fe3eb6833a4c2d2b9261a0cfd98CAS |
Schmidt MWI, Skjemstad JO, Czimczik CI, Glaser B, Prentice KM, Gelinas Y, Kuhlbusch TAJ (2001) Comparative analysis of black carbon in soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15, 163–167.
| Comparative analysis of black carbon in soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXisVCht7Y%3D&md5=00a5828432c9fa11a162e369b2260d06CAS |
Sinsabaugh RL, Lauber CL, Weintraub MN, Ahmed B, Allison SD, Crenshaw C, Contosta AR, Cusack D, Frey S, Gallo ME, Gartner TB, Hobbie SE, Holland K, Keeler BL, Powers JS, Stursova M, Takacs-Vesbach C, Waldrop MP, Wallenstein MD, Zak DR, Zeglin LH (2008) Stoichiometry of soil enzyme activity at global scale. Ecology Letters 11, 1252–1264.
Skjemstad JO, Clarke P, Taylor JA, Oades JM, McClure SG (1996) The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil. Australian Journal of Soil Research 34, 251–271.
| The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XisV2is74%3D&md5=2918c06295dafd6a04948ffd1c004152CAS |
Skjemstad JO, Taylor JA, Smernik RJ (1999) Estimation of charcoal (char) in soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 30, 2283–2298.
| Estimation of charcoal (char) in soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXmt1GltLw%3D&md5=3be6780c73a0481d4d163f2dbd890d7dCAS |
Wardle DA, Zackrisson O, Nilsson MC (1998) The charcoal effect in boreal forests: mechanisms and ecological consequences. Oecologia 115, 419–426.
| The charcoal effect in boreal forests: mechanisms and ecological consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wheal MS, Fowles TO, Palmer LT (2011) A cost-effective acid digestion method using closed polypropylene tubes for inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis of plant essential elements. Analytical Methods 3, 2854–2863.
| A cost-effective acid digestion method using closed polypropylene tubes for inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis of plant essential elements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsFKlsrjM&md5=36e5cac1346d6e924c77982bd86a51b4CAS |
Zimmerman AR (2010) Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (Biochar). Environmental Science & Technology 44, 1295–1301.
| Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (Biochar).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmslWgug%3D%3D&md5=70cc71d83c6fb3e67ea60d5108ab9f8eCAS |
