Pornography consumption and sexual health among emerging adults from Malaysia: an observational study
Pei Hwa Goh
A * , Li Ann Phuah A and Yi Hwa Low A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.
Sexual Health 20(2) 134-147 https://doi.org/10.1071/SH22181
Submitted: 30 October 2022 Accepted: 8 February 2023 Published: 28 February 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC)
Abstract
Background: Despite the high prevalence, few studies have examined pornography consumption among emerging adults in Malaysia. The current study examined the attitudes, motivations, and behaviours related to pornography consumption and their association with sexual health.
Methods: Using a cross-sectional survey that was conducted online, a convenience sample of 319 Malaysians aged 18–30 years (M = 23.05, s.d. = 2.55) reported their attitudes and behaviours related to pornography consumption, including the degree of problematic consumption, and completed measures of sexual health. These included sexual satisfaction, awareness of sexual feelings, sexual self-reflection, sexual assertiveness, embarrassment during partnered sex, and genital image. To capture pornography genre preferences, participants also reported the keywords that they typically use to search for pornography. These open-ended responses were thematically coded.
Results: Between 60 and 70% of participants reported positive attitudes toward pornography and 81.2% (N = 259) reported lifetime intentional exposure to pornography. Gender differences were present in pornography consumption attitudes, motivations, preferences, and behaviours. Problematic pornography consumption, and not consumption frequency, was associated with poorer sexual satisfaction. Among women and not men, more frequent consumption was associated with more sexual self-reflection and positive feelings about their genitals. Sexual embarrassment was higher among women who consume pornography more problematically and among men who consumed pornography more frequently.
Conclusions: Pornography consumption attitudes and behaviours appear rather universal. However, the benefits of pornography consumption frequency and disadvantages associated with problematic consumption appear to be more relevant for women’s than men’s sexual health, specifically sexual self-reflection, genital image, and sexual embarrassment.
Keywords: genital image, Malaysia, pornography consumption, preferences, sexual assertiveness, sexual awareness, sexual satisfaction, sexual self-consciousness, sexual self-reflection.
References
[1] Hald GM. Gender differences in pornography consumption among young heterosexual Danish adults. Arch Sex Behav 2006; 35 577–585.| Gender differences in pornography consumption among young heterosexual Danish adults.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[2] Hald GM, Malamuth NM. Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption. Arch Sex Behav 2008; 37 614–625.
| Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[3] Grubbs JB, Perry SL. Moral incongruence and pornography use: a critical review and integration. J Sex Res 2019; 56 29–37.
| Moral incongruence and pornography use: a critical review and integration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[4] World Health Organization. Defining sexual health: report of a technical consultation on sexual health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.
[5] Wright PJ, Tokunaga RS, Kraus A, Klann E. Pornography consumption and satisfaction: a meta-analysis. Hum Commun Res 2017; 43 315–343.
| Pornography consumption and satisfaction: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[6] Hoagland KC, Grubbs JB. Pornography use and holistic sexual functioning: a systematic review of recent research. Curr Addict Rep 2021; 8 408–421.
| Pornography use and holistic sexual functioning: a systematic review of recent research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[7] Litsou K, Byron P, McKee A, Ingham R. Learning from pornography: results of a mixed methods systematic review. Sex Educ 2021; 21 236–252.
| Learning from pornography: results of a mixed methods systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[8] Paslakis G, Chiclana Actis C, Mestre-Bach G. Associations between pornography exposure, body image and sexual body image: a systematic review. J Health Psychol 2022; 27 743–760.
| Associations between pornography exposure, body image and sexual body image: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[9] Peter J, Valkenburg PM. Adolescents and pornography: a review of 20 years of research. J Sex Res 2016; 53 509–531.
| Adolescents and pornography: a review of 20 years of research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[10] Sidi H, Loh SF, Mahadevan R, Puteh SEW, Musa R, Wong CY, et al. Knowledge and attitude on sex among medical students of a Malaysian university: a comparison study. Asia Pac Psychiatry 2013; 5 103–109.
| Knowledge and attitude on sex among medical students of a Malaysian university: a comparison study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[11] Zohor Ali AA, Muhammad NA, Jamil TR, Ahmad S, Abd Aziz NA. Internet pornography exposures amongst young people in Malaysia: a cross-sectional study looking into the role of gender and perceived realism versus the actual sexual activities. Addict Behav Rep 2021; 14 100350
| Internet pornography exposures amongst young people in Malaysia: a cross-sectional study looking into the role of gender and perceived realism versus the actual sexual activities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[12] Soleymani S, Abdul Rahman H, Lekhraj R, Mohd Zulkefli NA, Matinnia N. A cross-sectional study to explore postgraduate students’ understanding of and beliefs about sexual and reproductive health in a public university, Malaysia. Reprod Health 2015; 12 1–7.
| A cross-sectional study to explore postgraduate students’ understanding of and beliefs about sexual and reproductive health in a public university, Malaysia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[13] Khalaf ZF, Low WY, Merghati-Khoei E, Ghorbani B. Sexuality education in Malaysia: perceived issues and barriers by professionals. Asia Pac J Public Health 2014; 26 358–366.
| Sexuality education in Malaysia: perceived issues and barriers by professionals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[14] Chen L, Jiang X, Wang Q, Bőthe B, Potenza MN, Wu H. The association between the quantity and severity of pornography use: a meta-analysis. J Sex Res 2022; 59 704–719.
| The association between the quantity and severity of pornography use: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[15] Grubbs JB, Kraus SW. Pornography use and psychological science: a call for consideration. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2021; 30 68–75.
| Pornography use and psychological science: a call for consideration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[16] Snell WE, Fisher TD, Miller RS. Development of the sexual awareness questionnaire: components, reliability, and validity. Ann Sex Res 1991; 4 65–92.
| Development of the sexual awareness questionnaire: components, reliability, and validity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[17] Horne S, Zimmer-Gembeck MJ. The female sexual subjectivity inventory: development and validation of a multidimensional inventory for late adolescents and emerging adults. Psychol Women Q 2006; 30 125–138.
| The female sexual subjectivity inventory: development and validation of a multidimensional inventory for late adolescents and emerging adults.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[18] van Lankveld JJDM, Geijen WEH, Sykora H. The sexual self-consciousness scale: psychometric properties. Arch Sex Behav 2008; 37 925–933.
| The sexual self-consciousness scale: psychometric properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[19] Komarnicky T, Skakoon-Sparling S, Milhausen RR, Breuer R. Genital self-image: associations with other domains of body image and sexual response. J Sex Marital Ther 2019; 45 524–537.
| Genital self-image: associations with other domains of body image and sexual response.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[20] Festinger L. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum Relat 1954; 7 117–140.
| A theory of social comparison processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[21] Yamamiya Y, Cash TF, Thompson JK. Sexual experiences among college women: the differential effects of general versus contextual body images on sexuality. Sex Roles 2006; 55 421–427.
| Sexual experiences among college women: the differential effects of general versus contextual body images on sexuality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[22] Wright PJ, Sun C, Steffen NJ, Tokunaga RS. Associative pathways between pornography consumption and reduced sexual satisfaction. Sex Relatsh Ther 2019; 34 422–439.
| Associative pathways between pornography consumption and reduced sexual satisfaction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[23] Goldsmith K, Dunkley CR, Dang SS, Gorzalka BB. Pornography consumption and its association with sexual concerns and expectations among young men and women. Can J Hum Sex 2017; 26 151–162.
| Pornography consumption and its association with sexual concerns and expectations among young men and women.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[24] Herbenick D, Fu T-C, Wright P, Paul B, Gradus R, Bauer J, et al. Diverse sexual behaviors and pornography use: findings from a nationally representative probability survey of Americans aged 14 to 60 years. J Sex Med 2020; 17 623–633.
| Diverse sexual behaviors and pornography use: findings from a nationally representative probability survey of Americans aged 14 to 60 years.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[25] Petersen JL, Hyde JS. Gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors: a review of meta-analytic results and large datasets. J Sex Res 2011; 48 149–165.
| Gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors: a review of meta-analytic results and large datasets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[26] Tan S-A, Goh YS, Mohd Zaharim N, Gan SW, Yap CC, Nainee S, et al. Problematic internet pornography use and psychological distress among emerging adults in Malaysia: gender as a moderator. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19 3682
| Problematic internet pornography use and psychological distress among emerging adults in Malaysia: gender as a moderator.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[27] Faul F, Erdfelder E, Buchner A, Lang A-G. Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behav Res Methods 2009; 41 1149–1160.
| Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[28] Bőthe B, Tóth-Király I, Demetrovics Z, Orosz G. The short version of the Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (PPCS-6): a reliable and valid measure in general and treatment-seeking populations. J Sex Res 2021; 58 342–352.
| The short version of the Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (PPCS-6): a reliable and valid measure in general and treatment-seeking populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[29] Paul B, Shim JW. Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for Internet pornography use. Int J Sex Health 2008; 20 187–199.
| Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for Internet pornography use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[30] Goodson P, McCormick D, Evans A. Sex on the internet: college students’ emotional arousal when viewing sexually explicit materials online. J Sex Educ Ther 2000; 25 252–260.
| Sex on the internet: college students’ emotional arousal when viewing sexually explicit materials online.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[31] Maddock ME, Steele K, Esplin CR, Hatch SG, Braithwaite SR. What is the relationship among religiosity, self-perceived problematic pornography use, and depression over time? Sex Addict Compulsivity 2019; 26 211–238.
| What is the relationship among religiosity, self-perceived problematic pornography use, and depression over time?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[32] Weinberg MS, Williams CJ, Kleiner S, Irizarry Y. Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Arch Sex Behav 2010; 39 1389–1401.
| Pornography, normalization, and empowerment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[33] Lawrance K-A, Byers ES. Sexual satisfaction in long-term heterosexual relationships: the interpersonal exchange model of sexual satisfaction. Pers Relatsh 1995; 2 267–285.
| Sexual satisfaction in long-term heterosexual relationships: the interpersonal exchange model of sexual satisfaction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[34] Herbenick D, Schick V, Reece M, Sanders S, Dodge B, Fortenberry JD. The Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSIS): results from a nationally representative probability sample of women in the United States. J Sex Med 2011; 8 158–166.
| The Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSIS): results from a nationally representative probability sample of women in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[35] Adler NE, Epel ES, Castellazzo G, Ickovics JR. Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy, White women. Health Psychol 2000; 19 586–592.
| Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy, White women.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[36] Rosen R, Brown C, Heiman J, Leiblum S, Meston C, Shabsigh R, Ferguson D, D’Agostino R. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): a multidimensional self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function. J Sex Marital Ther 2000; 26 191–208.
| The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): a multidimensional self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[37] Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 2006; 3 77–101.
| Using thematic analysis in psychology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[38] Eleuteri S, Terzitta G. Sexuality during the COVID-19 pandemic: the importance of internet. Sexologies 2021; 30 e55–e60.
| Sexuality during the COVID-19 pandemic: the importance of internet.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[39] Pornhub. 2021 year in review. 2021. Available at https://www.pornhub.com/insights/yir-2021 [cited 23 October 2022].
[40] Rupp HA, Wallen K. Sex differences in response to visual sexual stimuli: a review. Arch Sex Behav 2008; 37 206–218.
| Sex differences in response to visual sexual stimuli: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[41] Basson R. The female sexual response: a different model. J Sex Marital Ther 2000; 26 51–65.
| The female sexual response: a different model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[42] Pornhub. 50 Shades of Pornhub. 2015. Available at https://www.pornhub.com/insights/50-shades-bdsm-searches [cited 23 October 2022].
[43] De Neef N, Coppens V, Huys W, Morrens M. Bondage-discipline, dominance-submission and sadomasochism (BDSM) from an integrative biopsychosocial perspective: a systematic review. Sex Med 2019; 7 129–144.
| Bondage-discipline, dominance-submission and sadomasochism (BDSM) from an integrative biopsychosocial perspective: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[44] Grubbs JB, Wright PJ, Braden AL, Wilt JA, Kraus SW. Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic review and integration. Ann Int Commun Assoc 2019; 43 117–155.
| Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic review and integration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[45] Wordecha M, Wilk M, Kowalewska E, Skorko M, Łapiński A, Gola M. “Pornographic binges” as a key characteristic of males seeking treatment for compulsive sexual behaviors: qualitative and quantitative 10-week-long diary assessment. J Behav Addict 2018; 7 433–444.
| “Pornographic binges” as a key characteristic of males seeking treatment for compulsive sexual behaviors: qualitative and quantitative 10-week-long diary assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[46] Levin ME, Lee EB, Twohig MP. The role of experiential avoidance in problematic pornography viewing. Psychol Rec 2019; 69 1–12.
| The role of experiential avoidance in problematic pornography viewing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[47] Bőthe B, Tóth-Király I, Griffiths MD, Potenza MN, Orosz G, Demetrovics Z. Are sexual functioning problems associated with frequent pornography use and/or problematic pornography use? Results from a large community survey including males and females. Addict Behav 2021; 112 106603
| Are sexual functioning problems associated with frequent pornography use and/or problematic pornography use? Results from a large community survey including males and females.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[48] Sommet N, Berent J. Porn use and men’s and women’s sexual performance: evidence from a large longitudinal sample. Psychol Med 2022; 1–10.
| Porn use and men’s and women’s sexual performance: evidence from a large longitudinal sample.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[49] Bőthe B, Tóth-Király I, Bella N, Potenza MN, Demetrovics Z, Orosz G. Why do people watch pornography? The motivational basis of pornography use. Psychol Addict Behav 2021; 35 172–186.
| Why do people watch pornography? The motivational basis of pornography use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[50] Komlenac N, Hochleitner M. Associations between pornography consumption, sexual flexibility, and sexual functioning among Austrian adults. Arch Sex Behav 2022; 51 1323–1336.
| Associations between pornography consumption, sexual flexibility, and sexual functioning among Austrian adults.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[51] Hesse C, Floyd K. Affection substitution: the effect of pornography consumption on close relationships. J Soc Pers Relatsh 2019; 36 3887–3907.
| Affection substitution: the effect of pornography consumption on close relationships.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[52] Department of Statistics Malaysia. Demographic statistics third quarter 2022, Malaysia. Putrajaya: Department of Statistics Malaysia; 2022. Available at https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=430&bul_id=MEN2anptL1pCNUZpOHJWTVVPR1ByZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 [cited 7 February 2023].
[53] Ward LM, Erickson SE, Lippman JR, Giaccardi S. Sexual media content and effects. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication; 2016. Available at https://oxfordre.com/communication/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-2 [cited 24 October 2022].
[54] Rothman EF, Daley N, Alder J. A pornography literacy program for adolescents. Am J Public Health 2020; 110 154–156.
| A pornography literacy program for adolescents.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
