Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Sexual Health Sexual Health Society
Publishing on sexual health from the widest perspective
REVIEW

A systematic review of the geospatial barriers to antiretroviral initiation, adherence and viral suppression among people living with HIV

Kiffer G. Card A B G , Nathan J. Lachowsky B C , Keri N. Althoff D , Katherine Schafer E , Robert S. Hogg A B and Julio S. G. Montaner B F
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Faculty of Health Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.

B British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

C School of Public Health and Social Policy, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.

D Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.

E Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.

F Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

G Corresponding author. Email: kiffercard@gmail.com

Sexual Health 16(1) 1-17 https://doi.org/10.1071/SH18104
Submitted: 26 October 2017  Accepted: 4 July 2018   Published: 9 November 2018

Abstract

Background: With the emergence of antiretroviral therapy (ART), Treatment as Prevention (TasP) has become the cornerstone of both HIV clinical care and HIV prevention. However, despite the efficacy of treatment-based programs and policies, structural barriers to ART initiation, adherence and viral suppression have the potential to reduce TasP effectiveness. These barriers have been studied using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). While previous reviews have examined the use of GIS for HIV testing – an essential antecedent to clinical care – to date, no reviews have summarised the research with respect to other ART-related outcomes. Methods: Therefore, the present review leveraged the PubMed database to identify studies that leveraged GIS to examine the barriers to ART initiation, adherence and viral suppression, with the overall goal of understanding how GIS has been used (and might continue to be used) to better study TasP outcomes. Joanna Briggs Institute criteria were used for the critical appraisal of included studies. Results: In total, 33 relevant studies were identified, excluding those not utilising explicit GIS methodology or not examining TasP-related outcomes. Conclusions: Findings highlight geospatial variation in ART success and inequitable distribution of HIV care in racially segregated, economically disadvantaged, and, by some accounts, increasingly rural areas – particularly in the United States. Furthermore, this review highlights the utility and current limitations of using GIS to monitor health outcomes related to ART and the need for careful planning of resources with respect to the geospatial movement and location of people living with HIV (PLWH).

Additional keywords: antiretroviral therapy, geographic information systems, HIV/AIDS, Treatment as Prevention.


References

[1]  Attia S, Egger M, Müller M, Zwahlen M, Low N. Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS 2009; 23 1397–404.
Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[2]  Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 2011; 365 493–505.
Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[3]  Donnell D, Baeten JM, Kiarie J, Thomas KK, Stevens W, Cohen CR. Heterosexual HIV-1 transmission after initiation of antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort analysis. Lancet 2010; 375 2092–8.
Heterosexual HIV-1 transmission after initiation of antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[4]  Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Brunn T, Vernazza P, Collins S, van Lunzen J. Sexual activity without condoms and risk of HIV transmission in serodifferent couples when the HIV-positive partner is using suppressive antiretroviral therapy. JAMA 2016; 316 171–81.
Sexual activity without condoms and risk of HIV transmission in serodifferent couples when the HIV-positive partner is using suppressive antiretroviral therapy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[5]  Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort. Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet 2008; 372 293–9.
Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[6]  Montaner JSG, Lima VD, Harrigan PR, Lourenço L, Yip B, Nosyk B. Expansion of HAART coverage is associated with sustained decreases in HIV/AIDS morbidity, mortality and HIV transmission: the “HIV Treatment as Prevention” experience in a Canadian setting. PLoS One 2014; 9 e87872
Expansion of HAART coverage is associated with sustained decreases in HIV/AIDS morbidity, mortality and HIV transmission: the “HIV Treatment as Prevention” experience in a Canadian setting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[7]  Montaner JSG, Hogg R, Wood E, Kerr T, Tyndall M, Levy AR. The case for expanding access to highly active antiretroviral therapy to curb the growth of the HIV epidemic. Lancet 2006; 368 531–6.
The case for expanding access to highly active antiretroviral therapy to curb the growth of the HIV epidemic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[8]  Montaner JSG, Lima VD, Barrios R, Yip B, Wood E, Kerr T. Association of highly active antiretroviral therapy coverage, population viral load, and yearly new HIV diagnoses in British Columbia, Canada: a population-based study. Lancet 2010; 376 532–9.
Association of highly active antiretroviral therapy coverage, population viral load, and yearly new HIV diagnoses in British Columbia, Canada: a population-based study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[9]  UNAIDS. 90–90–90 - An Ambitious Treatment Target to Help End the AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2014. Available online at: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/90-90-90_en_0.pdf [verified September 2016].

[10]  Lima VD, Lourenço L, Yip B, Hogg RS, Phillips P, Montaner JSG. Trends in AIDS incidence and AIDS-related mortality in British Columbia between 1981 and 2013. Lancet HIV 2015; 2 e92–7.
Trends in AIDS incidence and AIDS-related mortality in British Columbia between 1981 and 2013.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[11]  Lima VD, Eyawo O, Ma H, Lourenço L, Chau W, Hogg RS. The impact of scaling-up combination antiretroviral therapy on patterns of mortality among HIV-positive persons in British Columbia, Canada. J Int AIDS Soc 2015; 18 20261
The impact of scaling-up combination antiretroviral therapy on patterns of mortality among HIV-positive persons in British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[12]  Hull M, Lange J, Montaner JSG. Treatment as Prevention–where next? Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2014; 11 496–504.
Treatment as Prevention–where next?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[13]  Nosyk B, Min J, Lima V, Hogg RS, Montaner J. Modelling the cost-effectiveness of population-level HAART expansion in British Columbia. Lancet HIV 2015; 2 e393–400.
Modelling the cost-effectiveness of population-level HAART expansion in British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[14]  Cohen MS, Smith MK, Muessig KE, Hallett TB, Powers KA, Kashuba AD. Antiretroviral treatment of HIV-1 prevents transmission of HIV-1: where do we go from here? Lancet 2013; 382 1515–24.
Antiretroviral treatment of HIV-1 prevents transmission of HIV-1: where do we go from here?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[15]  Hixson BA, Omer SB, del Rio C, Frew PM. Spatial clustering of HIV prevalence in Atlanta, Georgia and population characteristics associated with case concentrations. J Urban Health 2011; 88 129–41.
Spatial clustering of HIV prevalence in Atlanta, Georgia and population characteristics associated with case concentrations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[16]  Lindberg LD, Orr M. Neighborhood-level influences on young men’s sexual and reproductive health behaviors. Am J Public Health 2011; 101 271–4.
Neighborhood-level influences on young men’s sexual and reproductive health behaviors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[17]  Ramjee G, Wand H. Geographical clustering of high risk sexual behaviors in “hot-spots” for HIV and sexually transmitted infections in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. AIDS Behav 2014; 18 317–22.
Geographical clustering of high risk sexual behaviors in “hot-spots” for HIV and sexually transmitted infections in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[18]  Das M, Chu PL, Santos G-M, Scheer S, Vittinghoff E, McFarland W, Colfax GN. Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS One 2010; 5 e11068
Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[19]  Solomon SS, Mehta SH, McFall AM, Srikrishnan AK, Saravanan S, Laeyendecker O, Balakrishnan P, Celentano DD, Solomon S, Lucas GM. Community viral load, antiretroviral therapy coverage, and HIV incidence in India: a cross-sectional, comparative study. Lancet HIV 2016; 3 e183–90.
Community viral load, antiretroviral therapy coverage, and HIV incidence in India: a cross-sectional, comparative study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[20]  Smith MK, Powers KA, Muessig KE, Miller WC, Cohen MS. HIV Treatment as Prevention: the utility and limitations of ecological observation. PLoS Med 2012; 9 e1001260
HIV Treatment as Prevention: the utility and limitations of ecological observation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[21]  Geanuracos CG, Cunningham SD, Weiss G, Forte D, Henry Reid LM, Ellen JM. Use of geographic information systems for planning HIV prevention interventions for high-risk youths. Am J Public Health 2007; 97 1974–81.
Use of geographic information systems for planning HIV prevention interventions for high-risk youths.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[22]  Gilliam G, Hanchette C, Fogarty K, Gibbs D. A geospatial analysis of CDC-funded HIV prevention programs for African Americans in the United States. J Health Dispar Res Pract 2012; 2 39–60. Available online at: http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/jhdrp/vol2/iss2/3 [verified 24 September 2018].

[23]  Koblin BA, Egan JE, Rundle A, Quinn J, Tieu H-V, Cerdá M . Methods to measure the impact of home, social, and sexual neighborhoods of urban gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. PLoS One 2013; 8 e75878
Methods to measure the impact of home, social, and sexual neighborhoods of urban gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[24]  Latkin CA, German D, Vlahov D. Neighborhoods and HIV: a social ecological approach to prevention and care. Am Psychol 2013; 68 210–24.
Neighborhoods and HIV: a social ecological approach to prevention and care.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[25]  Leibowitz AA, Taylor SL. Distance to public test sites and HIV testing. Med Care Res Rev 2007; 64 568–84.
Distance to public test sites and HIV testing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[26]  Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on HIV Screening and Access to Care. HIV screening and access to care: health care system capacity for increased HIV testing and provision of care. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2011. Available online at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209480/ [verified September 2017].

[27]  Coovadia HM. Access to voluntary counseling and testing for HIV in developing countries. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000; 918 57–63.
Access to voluntary counseling and testing for HIV in developing countries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[28]  Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, Shekelle P, Stewart LA,, PRISMA-P Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst Rev 2015; 4 1
Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[29]  Joanna Briggs Institute. Critical appraisal checklist for analytical cross sectional studies. Adelaide: The Joanna Briggs Institute; 2017. Available online at: http://joannabriggs.org/assets/docs/critical-appraisal-tools/JBI_Critical_Appraisal-Checklist_for_Systematic_Reviews2017.pdf [verified 6 September 2018].

[30]  Vaughan AS, Kramer MR, Cooper HLF, Rosenberg ES, Sullivan PS. Activity spaces of men who have sex with men: an initial exploration of geographic variation in locations of routine, potential sexual risk, and prevention behaviors. Soc Sci Med 2017; 175 1–10.
Activity spaces of men who have sex with men: an initial exploration of geographic variation in locations of routine, potential sexual risk, and prevention behaviors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[31]  Gehlke CE, Biehl K. Certain effects of grouping upon the size of the correlation coefficient in census tract material. J Am Stat Assoc 2012; 29 169–70.
Certain effects of grouping upon the size of the correlation coefficient in census tract material.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[32]  Althoff KN, Rebeiro PF, Hanna DB, Padgett D, Horberg MA, Grinsztejn B, Abraham AG, Hogg R, Gill MJ, Wolff MJ, Mayor A, Rachlis A, Williams C, Sterling TR, Kitahata MM, Buchacz K, Thorne JE, Cesar C, Cordero FM, Rourke SB, Sierra‐Madero J, Pape JW, Cahn P, McGowan C. A picture is worth a thousand words: maps of HIV indicators to inform research, programs, and policy from NA-ACCORD and CCASAnet clinical cohorts. J Int AIDS Soc 2016; 19 20707
A picture is worth a thousand words: maps of HIV indicators to inform research, programs, and policy from NA-ACCORD and CCASAnet clinical cohorts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[33]  Cherutich P, Kim AA, Kellogg TA, Sherr K, Waruru A, De Cock KM, Rutherford GW. Detectable HIV viral load in Kenya: data from a population-based survey. PLoS One 2016; 11 e0154318
Detectable HIV viral load in Kenya: data from a population-based survey.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[34]  Hanna DB, Buchacz K, Gebo KA, Hessol NA, Horberg MA, Jacobson LP, Kirk GD, Kitahata MM, Korthuis PT, Moore RD, Napravnik S, Patel P, Silverberg MJ, Sterling TR, Willig JH, Lau B, Althoff KN, Crane HM, Collier AC, Samji H, et al Trends and disparities in antiretroviral therapy initiation and virologic suppression among newly treatment-eligible HIV-infected individuals in North America, 2001–2009. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56 1174–82.
Trends and disparities in antiretroviral therapy initiation and virologic suppression among newly treatment-eligible HIV-infected individuals in North America, 2001–2009.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[35]  Lourenço L, Colley G, Nosyk B, Shopin D, Montaner JSG, Lima VD, STOP HIV/AIDS Study Group High levels of heterogeneity in the HIV cascade of care across different population subgroups in British Columbia, Canada. PLoS One 2014; 9 e115277
High levels of heterogeneity in the HIV cascade of care across different population subgroups in British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[36]  Ohl M, Lund B, Belperio PS, Goetz MB, Rimland D, Richardson K, Justice A, Perencevich E, Vaughan-Sarrazin M. Rural residence and adoption of a novel HIV therapy in a national, equal-access healthcare system. AIDS Behav 2013; 17 250–9.
Rural residence and adoption of a novel HIV therapy in a national, equal-access healthcare system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[37]  Ohl M, Perencevich E, McInnes DK, Kim N, Rimland D, Akgun K, Fiellin DA, Skanderson M, Wang K, Justice A. Antiretroviral adherence among rural compared to urban veterans with HIV infection in the United States. AIDS Behav 2012; 17 174–80.
Antiretroviral adherence among rural compared to urban veterans with HIV infection in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[38]  Raboud JM, Loutfy MR, Su D, Bayoumi AM, Klein MB, Cooper C. Regional differences in rates of HIV-1 viral load monitoring in Canada: insights and implications for antiretroviral care in high income countries. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10 40
Regional differences in rates of HIV-1 viral load monitoring in Canada: insights and implications for antiretroviral care in high income countries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[39]  Sayles JN, Rurangirwa J, Kim M, Kinsler J, Oruga R, Janson M. Operationalizing treatment as prevention in Los Angeles County: antiretroviral therapy use and factors associated with unsuppressed viral load in the Ryan White system of care. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2012; 26 463–70.
Operationalizing treatment as prevention in Los Angeles County: antiretroviral therapy use and factors associated with unsuppressed viral load in the Ryan White system of care.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[40]  Wilson LE, Korthuis T, Fleishman JA, Conviser R, Lawrence PB, Moore RD. HIV-related medical service use by rural/urban residents: a multistate perspective. AIDS Care 2011; 23 971–9.
HIV-related medical service use by rural/urban residents: a multistate perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[41]  King WD, Minor P, Ramirez Kitchen C, Oré L, Shoptaw S, Victorianne G, Rust G. Racial, gender and geographic disparities of antiretroviral treatment among US Medicaid enrolees in 1998. J Epidemiol Community Health 2008; 62 798–803.
Racial, gender and geographic disparities of antiretroviral treatment among US Medicaid enrolees in 1998.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[42]  Chakraborty H, Iyer M, Duffus WA, Samantapudi AV, Albrecht H, Weissman S. Disparities in viral load and CD4 count trends among HIV-infected adults in South Carolina. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2015; 29 26–32.
Disparities in viral load and CD4 count trends among HIV-infected adults in South Carolina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[43]  Gordon DE, Bian F, Anderson BJ, Smith LC. Timing of entry to care by newly diagnosed HIV cases before and after the 2010 New York State HIV Testing Law. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015; 68 S54–8.
Timing of entry to care by newly diagnosed HIV cases before and after the 2010 New York State HIV Testing Law.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[44]  Laraque F, Mavronicolas HA, Robertson MM, Gortakowski HW, Terzian AS. Disparities in community viral load among HIV-infected persons in New York city. AIDS 2013; 27 2129–39.
Disparities in community viral load among HIV-infected persons in New York city.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[45]  Ohl M, Tate J, Duggal M, Skanderson M, Scotch M, Kaboli P, Vaughan-Sarrazin M, Justice A. Rural residence is associated with delayed care entry and increased mortality among veterans with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Med Care 2010; 48 1064–70.
Rural residence is associated with delayed care entry and increased mortality among veterans with human immunodeficiency virus infection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[46]  Arnold M, Hsu L, Pipkin S, McFarland W, Rutherford GW. Race, place and AIDS: the role of socioeconomic context on racial disparities in treatment and survival in San Francisco. Soc Sci Med 2009; 69 121–8.
Race, place and AIDS: the role of socioeconomic context on racial disparities in treatment and survival in San Francisco.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[47]  Burke-Miller JK, Weber K, Cohn SE, Hershow RC, Sha BE, French AL, Cohen MH. Neighborhood community characteristics associated with HIV disease outcomes in a cohort of urban women living with HIV. AIDS Care 2016; 28 1274–9.
Neighborhood community characteristics associated with HIV disease outcomes in a cohort of urban women living with HIV.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[48]  Castel AD, Befus M, Willis S, Griffin A, West T, Hader S, Greenberg AE. Use of the community viral load as a population-based biomarker of HIV burden. AIDS 2012; 26 345–53.
Use of the community viral load as a population-based biomarker of HIV burden.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[49]  Goswami ND, Schmitz MM, Sanchez T, Dasgupta S, Sullivan P, Cooper H, Rane D, Kelly J, Del Rio C, Waller LA. Understanding local spatial variation along the care continuum: the potential impact of transportation vulnerability on HIV linkage to care and viral suppression in high-poverty areas, Atlanta, Georgia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2016; 72 65–72.
Understanding local spatial variation along the care continuum: the potential impact of transportation vulnerability on HIV linkage to care and viral suppression in high-poverty areas, Atlanta, Georgia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[50]  Gueler A, Schoeni-Affolter F, Moser A, Bertisch B, Bucher HC, Calmy A, Cavassinih M, Ledergerberi B, Wandelera G, Egger M, Swiss HIV Cohort Study Swiss National Cohort Neighbourhood socio-economic position, late presentation and outcomes in people living with HIV in Switzerland. AIDS 2015; 29 231–8.
Neighbourhood socio-economic position, late presentation and outcomes in people living with HIV in Switzerland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[51]  Hernández-Romieu AC, del Rio C, Hernández-Ávila JE, Lopez-Gatell H, Izazola-Licea JA, Zúñiga PU, Hernández-Ávila M. CD4 counts at entry to HIV care in Mexico for patients under the “Universal Antiretroviral Treatment Program for the Uninsured Population,” 2007–2014. PLoS One 2016; 11 e0152444
CD4 counts at entry to HIV care in Mexico for patients under the “Universal Antiretroviral Treatment Program for the Uninsured Population,” 2007–2014.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[52]  Joy R, Druyts EF, Brandson EK, Lima VD, Rustad CA, Zhang W, Wood E, Montaner JSG, Hogg RS. Impact of neighborhood-level socioeconomic status on HIV disease progression in a universal health care setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008; 47 500–5.
Impact of neighborhood-level socioeconomic status on HIV disease progression in a universal health care setting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[53]  Kahana SY, Jenkins RA, Bruce D, Fernandez MI, Hightow-Weidman LB, Bauermeister JA, Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions Structural determinants of antiretroviral therapy use, HIV care attendance, and viral suppression among adolescents and young adults living with HIV. PLoS One 2016; 11 e0151106
Structural determinants of antiretroviral therapy use, HIV care attendance, and viral suppression among adolescents and young adults living with HIV.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[54]  Rebeiro PF, Gange SJ, Horberg MA, Abraham AG, Napravnik S, Samji H, Yehia BR, Althoff KN, Moore RD, Kitahata MM, Sterling TR, Curriero FC, North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD) Geographic variations in retention in care among HIV-infected adults in the United States. PLoS One 2016; 11 e0146119
Geographic variations in retention in care among HIV-infected adults in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[55]  Shacham E, Lian M, Önen N, Donovan M, Overton E. Are neighborhood conditions associated with HIV management? HIV Med 2013; 14 624–32.
Are neighborhood conditions associated with HIV management?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[56]  Surratt HL, Kurtz SP, Levi-Minzi MA, Chen M. Environmental influences on HIV medication adherence: the role of neighborhood disorder. Am J Public Health 2015; 105 1660–6.
Environmental influences on HIV medication adherence: the role of neighborhood disorder.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[57]  Ransome Y, Kawachi I, Dean LT. Neighborhood social capital in relation to late HIV diagnosis, linkage to HIV care, and HIV care engagement. AIDS Behav 2017; 21 891–904.
Neighborhood social capital in relation to late HIV diagnosis, linkage to HIV care, and HIV care engagement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[58]  Eberhart MG, Yehia BR, Hillier A, Voytek CD, Fiore DJ, Blank M, Frank I, Metzger DS, Brady KA. Individual and community factors associated with geographic clusters of poor HIV care retention and poor viral suppression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999; 69 S37–43.
Individual and community factors associated with geographic clusters of poor HIV care retention and poor viral suppression.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[59]  Cooke GS, Tanser FC, Bärnighausen TW, Newell M-L. Population uptake of antiretroviral treatment through primary care in rural South Africa. BMC Public Health 2010; 10 585
Population uptake of antiretroviral treatment through primary care in rural South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[60]  Johnson DC, Feldacker C, Tweya H, Phiri S, Hosseinipour MC. Factors associated with timely initiation of antiretroviral therapy in two HIV clinics in Lilongwe, Malawi. Int J STD AIDS 2013; 24 42–9.
Factors associated with timely initiation of antiretroviral therapy in two HIV clinics in Lilongwe, Malawi.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[61]  Eberhart MG, Yehia BR, Hillier A, Voytek CD, Blank MB, Frank I, Metzger DS, Brady KA. Behind the cascade: analyzing spatial patterns along the HIV care continuum. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 64 S42–51.
Behind the cascade: analyzing spatial patterns along the HIV care continuum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[62]  Siedner MJ, Lankowski A, Tsai AC, Muzoora C, Martin JN, Hunt PW, Haberer JE, Bangsberg DR. GPS-measured distance to clinic, but not self-reported transportation factors, are associated with missed HIV clinic visits in rural Uganda. AIDS 2013; 27 1503–8.
GPS-measured distance to clinic, but not self-reported transportation factors, are associated with missed HIV clinic visits in rural Uganda.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[63]  Wood E, Chan K, Montaner JS, Schechter MT, Tyndall M, O’Shaughnessy MV, Hogg RS. The end of the line: has rapid transit contributed to the spatial diffusion of HIV in one of Canada’s largest metropolitan areas? Soc Sci Med 2000; 51 741–8.

[64]  Kloos H, Assefa Y, Adugna A, Mulatu MS, Mariam DH. Utilization of antiretroviral treatment in Ethiopia between February and December 2006: spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns. Int J Health Geogr 2007; 6 45
Utilization of antiretroviral treatment in Ethiopia between February and December 2006: spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[65]  Schafer KR, Albrecht H, Dillingham R, Hogg RS, Jaworsky D, Kasper K, Loutfy M, MacKenzie LJ, McManus KA, Oursler KAK, Rhodes SD, Samji H, Skinner S, Sun CJ, Weissman S, Ohl ME. The continuum of HIV care in rural communities in the United States and Canada: what is known and future research directions. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2017; 75 35–44.
The continuum of HIV care in rural communities in the United States and Canada: what is known and future research directions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[66]  Bissonnette L, Wilson K, Bell S, Shah TI. Neighbourhoods and potential access to health care: the role of spatial and aspatial factors. Health Place 2012; 18 841–53.
Neighbourhoods and potential access to health care: the role of spatial and aspatial factors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[67]  Curry LA, Nembhard IM, Bradley EH. Qualitative and mixed methods provide unique contributions to outcomes research. Circulation 2009; 119 1442–52.
Qualitative and mixed methods provide unique contributions to outcomes research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[68]  Yoon E-S, Lubienski C. Thinking critically in space: toward a mixed-methods geospatial approach to education policy analysis. Educ Res 2018; 47 53–61.
Thinking critically in space: toward a mixed-methods geospatial approach to education policy analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[69]  Fingleton B, Gallo JL. Endogeneity in a spatial context: properties of estimators. In Páez A, Gallo J, Buliung RN, Dall’erba S, editors. Progress in Spatial Analysis, Advances in spatial science. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2010. pp. 59–73. 10.1007/978-3-642-03326-1.

[70]  McDonough IK, Millimet DL. Missing data, imputation, and endogeneity. J Econom 2017; 199 141–55.
Missing data, imputation, and endogeneity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[71]  Leightner JE, Inoue T. Solving the omitted variables problem of regression analysis using the relative vertical position of observations. Adv Decis Sci 2012; 728980
Solving the omitted variables problem of regression analysis using the relative vertical position of observations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[72]  Bassett IV, Regan S, Luthuli P, Mbonambi H, Bearnot B, Pendleton A, Robine M, Mukuvisi D, Thulare H, Walensky RP, Freedberg KA, Losina E, Mhlongo B. Linkage to care following community-based mobile HIV testing compared with clinic-based testing in Umlazi Township, Durban, South Africa. HIV Med 2014; 15 367–72.
Linkage to care following community-based mobile HIV testing compared with clinic-based testing in Umlazi Township, Durban, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[73]  Liang TS, Erbelding E, Jacob CA, Wicker H, Christmyer C, Brunson S, Richardson D, Ellen JM. Rapid HIV testing of clients of a mobile STD/HIV clinic. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2005; 19 253–7.
Rapid HIV testing of clients of a mobile STD/HIV clinic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[74]  Gilman B, Hidalgo J, Thomas C, Au M, Hargreaves M. Linkages to care for newly diagnosed individuals who test HIV positive in nonprimary care settings. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2012; 26 132–40.
Linkages to care for newly diagnosed individuals who test HIV positive in nonprimary care settings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[75]  Mdege ND, Chindove S. Bringing antiretroviral therapy (ART) closer to the end-user through mobile clinics and home-based ART: systematic review shows more evidence on the effectiveness and cost effectiveness is needed. Int J Health Plann Manage 2014; 29 e31–47.
Bringing antiretroviral therapy (ART) closer to the end-user through mobile clinics and home-based ART: systematic review shows more evidence on the effectiveness and cost effectiveness is needed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[76]  Houben RM, Van Boeckel TP, Mwinuka V, Mzumara P, Branson K, Linard C, Chimbwandira F, French N, Glynn JR, Crampin AC. Monitoring the impact of decentralised chronic care services on patient travel time in rural Africa - methods and results in Northern Malawi. Int J Health Geogr 2012; 11 49
Monitoring the impact of decentralised chronic care services on patient travel time in rural Africa - methods and results in Northern Malawi.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[77]  Lazarus JV, Safreed-Harmon K, Nicholson J, Jaffar S. Health service delivery models for the provision of antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 2014; 19 1198–215.
Health service delivery models for the provision of antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[78]  Koole O, Tsui S, Wabwire-Mangen F, Kwesigabo G, Menten J, Mulenga M, Auld A, Agolory S, Mukadi YD, Colebunders R, Bangsberg DR, van Praag E, Torpey K, Williams S, Kaplan J, Zee A, Denison J. Retention and risk factors for attrition among adults in antiretroviral treatment programmes in Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. Trop Med Int Health 2014; 19 1397–410.
Retention and risk factors for attrition among adults in antiretroviral treatment programmes in Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[79]  Gerberry DJ, Wagner BG, Garcia-Lerma JG, Heneine W, Blower S. Using geospatial modeling to optimize the rollout of antiretroviral-based pre-exposure HIV interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nat Commun 2014; 5 5454
Using geospatial modeling to optimize the rollout of antiretroviral-based pre-exposure HIV interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[80]  Davila JA, Miertschin N, Sansgiry S, Schwarzwald H, Henley C, Giordano TP. Centralization of HIV services in HIV-positive African-American and Hispanic youth improves retention in care. AIDS Care 2013; 25 202–6.
Centralization of HIV services in HIV-positive African-American and Hispanic youth improves retention in care.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[81]  Morrow C, Munro A, Wilke M, Stark R, Wood R. Remote sensing of HIV care programmes using centrally collected laboratory results: can we monitor ART programme effectiveness? South Afr Med J 2012; 102 501–5.

[82]  Tanner AE, Philbin MM, Ott MA, Duval A, Ellen J, Kapogiannis B, Fortenberry JD, The Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions Linking HIV+ adolescents into care: the effects of relationships between local health departments and adolescent medicine clinics. J HIV AIDS Soc Serv 2013; 12 424–36.
Linking HIV+ adolescents into care: the effects of relationships between local health departments and adolescent medicine clinics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[83]  Mallitt K-A, Jansson J, Crooks L, McGuigan D, Wand H, Wilson DP. Demand for HIV clinical services is increasing in Australia but supply is decreasing. Sex Health 2013; 10 43–6.
Demand for HIV clinical services is increasing in Australia but supply is decreasing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[84]  Pulerwitz J, Michaelis A, Weiss E, Brown L, Mahendra V. Reducing HIV-related stigma: lessons learned from horizons research and programs. Public Health Rep 2010; 125 272–81.
Reducing HIV-related stigma: lessons learned from horizons research and programs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[85]  Singer M, Bulled N, Ostrach B, Mendenhall E. Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. Lancet 2017; 389 941–50.
Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[86]  Castel AD, Befus M, Willis S, Griffin A, West T, Hader S, Greenberg AE. Use of the community viral load as a population-based biomarker of HIV burden. AIDS 2012; 26 345–53.
Use of the community viral load as a population-based biomarker of HIV burden.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |