Resting pastures to improve land condition in northern Australia: guidelines based on the literature and simulation modelling
Joe C. Scanlan A F , John G. McIvor B , Steven G. Bray C , Robyn A. Cowley D , Leigh P. Hunt E , Lester I. Pahl A , Neil D. MacLeod B and Giselle L. Whish A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, PO Box 102, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.
B CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, GPO Box 2583, Brisbane, Qld 4001, Australia.
C Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, PO Box 6014, Red Hill, Rockhampton, Qld 4701, Australia.
D Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Katherine, NT 0851, Australia.
E CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Winnellie, NT 0822, Australia.
F Corresponding author. Email: joe.scanlan@daff.qld.gov.au
The Rangeland Journal 36(5) 429-443 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ14071
Submitted: 28 May 2014 Accepted: 29 September 2014 Published: 24 October 2014
Abstract
Pasture rest is a possible strategy for improving land condition in the extensive grazing lands of northern Australia. If pastures currently in poor condition could be improved, then overall animal productivity and the sustainability of grazing could be increased. The scientific literature is examined to assess the strength of the experimental information to support and guide the use of pasture rest, and simulation modelling is undertaken to extend this information to a broader range of resting practices, growing conditions and initial pasture condition. From this, guidelines are developed that can be applied in the management of northern Australia’s grazing lands and also serve as hypotheses for further field experiments. The literature on pasture rest is diverse but there is a paucity of data from much of northern Australia as most experiments have been conducted in southern and central parts of Queensland. Despite this, the limited experimental information and the results from modelling were used to formulate the following guidelines. Rest during the growing season gives the most rapid improvement in the proportion of perennial grasses in pastures; rest during the dormant winter period is ineffective in increasing perennial grasses in a pasture but may have other benefits. Appropriate stocking rates are essential to gain the greatest benefit from rest: if stocking rates are too high, then pasture rest will not lead to improvement; if stocking rates are low, pastures will tend to improve without rest. The lower the initial percentage of perennial grasses, the more frequent the rests should be to give a major improvement within a reasonable management timeframe. Conditions during the growing season also have an impact on responses with the greatest improvement likely to be in years of good growing conditions. The duration and frequency of rest periods can be combined into a single value expressed as the proportion of time during which resting occurs; when this is done the modelling suggests the greater the proportion of time that a pasture is rested, the greater is the improvement but this needs to be tested experimentally. These guidelines should assist land managers to use pasture resting but the challenge remains to integrate pasture rest with other pasture and animal management practices at the whole-property scale.
Additional keywords: grazing systems, pasture management, productivity, spelling.
References
ANZECC and ARMCANZ (1996). ‘Australia’s draft national strategy for rangeland management.’ Australian & New Zealand Environment & Conservation Council (ANZECC) and Agriculture & Resource Management Council of Australia & New Zealand (ARMCANZ) Joint Working Group. (Department of Environment, Sport and Territories: Canberra, ACT.)ANZECC and ARMCANZ (1999). ‘Managing Australia’s rangelands – national principles and guidelines for rangeland management.’ Australian & New Zealand Environment & Conservation Council (ANZECC) and Agriculture & Resource Management Council of Australia & New Zealand (ARMCANZ), Canberra. Available at: www.mincos.gov.au/pdf/rangeland_management.pdf (accessed 29 July 2014).
Ash, A. J., and McIvor, J. G. (1998). How season of grazing and herbivore selectivity influence monsoon tall-grass communities of northern Australia. Journal of Vegetation Science 9, 123–132.
| How season of grazing and herbivore selectivity influence monsoon tall-grass communities of northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ash, A. J., Corfield, J. P., McIvor, J. G., and Ksiksi, T. S. (2011). Grazing management in tropical savannas: utilization and rest strategies to manipulate rangeland condition. Rangeland Ecology and Management 64, 223–239.
| Grazing management in tropical savannas: utilization and rest strategies to manipulate rangeland condition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bartley, R., Corfield, J. P., Abbot, B. N., Hawdon, A. A., Wilkinson, S. N., and Nelson, B. (2010). Impacts of improved grazing land management on sediment yields. Part 1. Hillslope processes. Journal of Hydrology 389, 249–259.
| Impacts of improved grazing land management on sediment yields. Part 1. Hillslope processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bartley, R., Corfield, J. P., Hawdon, A. A., Kinsey-Henderson, A. E., Abbot, B. N., Wilkinson, S. N., and Keen, R. J. (2014). Can changes to pasture management reduce run-off and sediment loss to the Great Barrier Reef? The results of a 10-year study in the Burdekin catchment, Australia. The Rangeland Journal 36, 67–84.
| Can changes to pasture management reduce run-off and sediment loss to the Great Barrier Reef? The results of a 10-year study in the Burdekin catchment, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bastin, G., Tongway, D., Sparrow, A., Purvis, B., and Hindley, N. (2001). Soil and vegetation recovery following water ponding. Range Management Newsletter 01, 1–7.
Bortolussi, G., McIvor, J. G., Hodgkinson, J. J., Coffey, S. G., and Holmes, C. R. (2005). The northern Australian beef industry, a snapshot. 4. Condition and management of natural resources. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45, 1109–1120.
| The northern Australian beef industry, a snapshot. 4. Condition and management of natural resources.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Edwards, K., and Zierholz, C. (2001). Soil formation and erosion rates. In: ‘Soils: Their Properties and Management’. (Eds P. E. V. Charman and B. W. Murphy.) pp. 39–58. (Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.)
Friedel, M. H., Sparrow, A. D., Kinloch, J. E., and Tongway, D. J. (2003). Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 2: vegetation. Journal of Arid Environments 55, 327–348.
| Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 2: vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gardener, C. J., McIvor, J. G., and Williams, J. (1990). Dry tropical rangelands: solving one problem and creating another. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 279–286.
Hacker, R. B., and Tunbridge, S. B. (1991). Grazing management strategies for reseeded rangelands in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia. The Rangeland Journal 13, 14–35.
| Grazing management strategies for reseeded rangelands in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt, L. P. (2008). Safe pasture utilisation rates as a grazing management tool in extensively grazed tropical savannas of northern Australia. The Rangeland Journal 30, 305–315.
| Safe pasture utilisation rates as a grazing management tool in extensively grazed tropical savannas of northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt, L. P., McIvor, J. G., Grice, A. C., and Bray, S. G. (2014). Principles and guidelines for managing cattle grazing in the grazing lands of northern Australia: stocking rates, pasture resting, prescribed fire, paddock size and water points – a review. The Rangeland Journal 36, 105–119.
| Principles and guidelines for managing cattle grazing in the grazing lands of northern Australia: stocking rates, pasture resting, prescribed fire, paddock size and water points – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnston, P., McKeon, G., and Day, K. (1996). Objective ‘safe’ grazing capacities for south-west Queensland Australia: development of a model for individual properties. The Rangeland Journal 18, 244–258.
| Objective ‘safe’ grazing capacities for south-west Queensland Australia: development of a model for individual properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones, P., Harris, C., and Silcock, R. (2012). Does wet season spelling improve land condition? In: ‘Australian Rangeland Society 17th Biennial Conference’. Kununurra, Western Australia, 23–27 September 2012. (Australian Rangeland Society) Available at: www.austrangesoc.com.au/userfiles/file/2012%20ARS%20Conference/ARS%20Proceedings%20v4.pdf (accessed 13 October 2014).
Kinloch, J. E., and Friedel, M. H. (2005a). Soil seed reserves in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 1: seed bank and vegetation dynamics. Journal of Arid Environments 60, 133–161.
| Soil seed reserves in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 1: seed bank and vegetation dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kinloch, J. E., and Friedel, M. H. (2005b). Soil seed reserves in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 2: availability of ‘safe sites’. Journal of Arid Environments 60, 163–185.
| Soil seed reserves in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 2: availability of ‘safe sites’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
MacLeod, N. D., Scanlan, J. C., Pahl, L. I., Whish, G. L., and Cowley, R. A. (2013). Identifying and addressing sustainable pasture and grazing management options for a major economic sector – the north Australian beef industry. Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales 1, 220–224.
McIvor, J. G. (2001). Pasture management in semi-arid tropical woodlands: regeneration of degraded pastures protected from grazing. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 487–496.
| Pasture management in semi-arid tropical woodlands: regeneration of degraded pastures protected from grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McIvor, J. G. (2010). ‘Enhancing adoption of improved grazing and fire management practices in northern Australia: synthesis of research and identification of best bet management guidelines.’ Meat and Livestock Australia Final Report Project B.NBP.0579. (Meat and Livestock Australia: North Sydney, NSW.)
McIvor, J. G., and Gardener, C. J. (1990). Soil and vegetation characteristics of dry tropical rangelands for predicting pasture regeneration in exclosures. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 273–277.
McIvor, J. G., and Orr, D. M. (1991). Sustaining productive pastures in the tropics. 3. Managing native grasslands. Tropical Grasslands 25, 91–97.
McIvor, J. G., and Scanlan, J. C. (1994). State and transition models for rangelands. 8. A state and transition model for the northern speargrass zone. Tropical Grasslands 28, 256–259.
McIvor, J. G., Ash, A. J., and Cook, G. D. (1995). Land condition in the tropical tallgrass pasture lands: 1. Effects on herbage production. The Rangeland Journal 17, 69–85.
| Land condition in the tropical tallgrass pasture lands: 1. Effects on herbage production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McIvor, J. G., McIntyre, S., Saeli, I., and Hodgkinson, J. J. (2005). Patch dynamics in grazed sub-tropical native pastures in south-east Queensland. Austral Ecology 30, 445–464.
| Patch dynamics in grazed sub-tropical native pastures in south-east Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKeon, G. M., Ash, A. J., Hall, W. B., and Stafford Smith, M. (2000). Simulation of grazing strategies for beef production in north-east Queensland. In: ‘Applications of Seasonal Climate Forecasting in Agricultural and Natural Ecosystems – the Australian Experience’. (Eds G. Hammer, N. Nicholls and C. Mitchell.) pp. 227–252. (Kluwer Academic Press: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.)
McKeon, G., Stone, G., Syktus, J., Carter, J., Flood, N., Ahrens, D., Bruget, D., Chilcott, C., Cobon, D., Cowley, R., Crimp, S., Fraser, G., Howden, M., Johnston, P., Ryan, J., Stokes, C., and Day, K. (2009). Climate change impacts on northern Australian rangeland livestock carrying capacity: a review of issues. The Rangeland Journal 31, 1–29.
| Climate change impacts on northern Australian rangeland livestock carrying capacity: a review of issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mott, J. J. (1987). Patch grazing and degradation in native pastures of the tropical savannas in northern Australia. In: ‘Grazing-lands Research at the Plant-Animal Interface’. (Eds F. P. Horn, J. Hodgson, J. J. Mott and R. W. Brougham.) pp. 153–161. (Winrock International: Morrilton, AR.)
Mott, J. J., Williams, J., Andrew, M. H., and Gillison, A. N. (1985). Australian savanna ecosystems. In: ‘Ecology and Management of the World’s Savannas’. (Eds J. C. Tothill and J. J. Mott.) pp. 56–82. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra, ACT.)
Norman, M. J. T. (1965). Post-establishment grazing management of Townsville lucerne on uncleared land at Katherine, N.T. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 31, 311–313.
O’Reagain, P., Bushell, J., and Holloway, C. (2007). ‘Testing and Developing Principles and Management Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of the Seasonably Variable Tropical Savannas.’ Meat and Livestock Australia Final Report Project NBP.318. (Meat & Livestock Australia: Sydney.)
O’Reagain, P. J., Bushell, J. J., Holloway, C. H., and Reid, A. (2009). Managing for rainfall variability: effect of grazing strategy on cattle production in a dry tropical savanna. Animal Production Science 49, 85–99.
| Managing for rainfall variability: effect of grazing strategy on cattle production in a dry tropical savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Reagain, P., Bushell, J., and Holmes, W. (2011). Managing for rainfall variability: long-term profitability of different grazing strategies in a northern Australian tropical savanna. Animal Production Science 51, 210–224.
| Managing for rainfall variability: long-term profitability of different grazing strategies in a northern Australian tropical savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Reagain, P., Scanlan, J., Hunt, L., Cowley, R., and Walsh, D. (2014). Sustainable grazing management for temporal and spatial variability in north Australian rangelands – a synthesis of the latest evidence and recommendations. The Rangeland Journal 36, 223–232.
| Sustainable grazing management for temporal and spatial variability in north Australian rangelands – a synthesis of the latest evidence and recommendations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orr, D. M. (1980). Effects of sheep grazing Astrebla grassland in central western Queensland. II. Effects of season rainfall. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 31, 807–820.
| Effects of sheep grazing Astrebla grassland in central western Queensland. II. Effects of season rainfall.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orr, D. M., and Evenson, C. J. (1991). Effects of sheep grazing Astrebla grasslands in central western Queensland. III. Dynamics of Astrebla spp. under grazing and exclosure between 1975 and 1986. The Rangeland Journal 13, 36–46.
| Effects of sheep grazing Astrebla grasslands in central western Queensland. III. Dynamics of Astrebla spp. under grazing and exclosure between 1975 and 1986.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orr, D. M., and Paton, C. J. (1997). Using fire to manage species composition in Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass) pastures 2. Enhancing the effects of fire with grazing management. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, 803–810.
| Using fire to manage species composition in Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass) pastures 2. Enhancing the effects of fire with grazing management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orr, D. M., and Phelps, D. G. (2013). Impacts of level of utilisation by grazing on an Astrebla (Mitchell grass) grassland in north-western Queensland between 1984 and 2010. 1. Herbage mass and population dynamics of Astrebla spp. The Rangeland Journal 35, 1–15.
| Impacts of level of utilisation by grazing on an Astrebla (Mitchell grass) grassland in north-western Queensland between 1984 and 2010. 1. Herbage mass and population dynamics of Astrebla spp.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orr, D. M., McKeon, G. M., and Day, K. A. (1991). Burning and exclosure can rehabilitate degraded black speargrass (Heteropogon contortus) pastures. Tropical Grasslands 25, 333–336.
Orr, D. M., Yee, M. C., and Myles, D. J. (2006). Impact of short-term exclosure from grazing on pasture recovery from drought in six Queensland pasture communities. Tropical Grasslands 40, 202–212.
Orr, D. M., Burrows, W. H., Hendricksen, R. E., Clem, R. L., Back, P. V., Rutherford, M. T., Myles, D. J., and Conway, M. J. (2010). Impacts of grazing management options on pasture and animal productivity in a Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass) pasture in central Queensland. 1. Pasture yield and composition. Crop & Pasture Science 61, 170–181.
| Impacts of grazing management options on pasture and animal productivity in a Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass) pasture in central Queensland. 1. Pasture yield and composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pahl, L. I., Scanlan, J. C., Whish, G. L., Cowley, R. A., and MacLeod, N. D. (2013). Systematic management of stocking rates improves performance of northern Australian cattle properties in a variable climate. Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales 1, 230–234.
Paton, C. J. (2004). ‘Restoring the condition of degraded black speargrass pastures in southern speargrass zone.’ SWAMP: Speargrass, Wiregrass, Animal Management Project. Meat and Livestock Australia Final Report NAP3.209. (Meat and Livestock Australia: North Sydney, NSW.)
Paton, C. J., and Rickert, K. G. (1989). Burning, then resting, reduces wiregrass (Aristida spp.) in black speargrass pastures. Tropical Grasslands 23, 211–218.
Payne, A. L., Watson, I. W., and Novelly, P. E. (2004). ‘Spectacular Recovery in the Ord River Catchment.’ Miscellaneous Publication 17/2004. (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia: Perth, WA.)
Pratt, D. J., and Gwynne, M. D. (1977). ‘Rangeland Management and Ecology in East Africa.’ (Robert E. Krieger Publishing: Huntington, NY.)
Quirk, M., and McIvor, J. (2003). ‘Grazing Land Management: Technical Manual.’ (Meat and Livestock Australia: North Sydney, NSW.)
Scanlan, J. C., Whish, G. L., Pahl, L. I., Cowley, R. A., and MacLeod, N. D. (2011). Assessing the impact of pasture resting on pasture condition in the extensive grazing lands of northern Australia. In: ‘MODSIM2011, 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation’. (Eds F. Chan, D. Marinova and R. S. Anderssen.) pp. 877–883. (Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New Zealand: Canberra, ACT.) Available at: www.mssanz.org.au/modsim2011/B1/scanlan2.pdf (accessed 25 March 2013).
Scanlan, J. C., MacLeod, N. D., and O’Reagain, P. J. (2013). Scaling results up from a plot and paddock scale to a property – a case study from a long-term grazing experiment in northern Australia. The Rangeland Journal 35, 193–200.
| Scaling results up from a plot and paddock scale to a property – a case study from a long-term grazing experiment in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shaw, K. A., Rolfe, J. W., English, B. H., and Kernot, J. C. (2007). A contemporary assessment of land condition in the Northern Gulf region of Queensland. Tropical Grasslands 41, 245–252.
Smith, E. L. (1960). Effects of burning and clipping at various times during the wet season on tropical tall grass range in northern Australia. Journal of Range Management 13, 197–203.
| Effects of burning and clipping at various times during the wet season on tropical tall grass range in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sparrow, A. D., Friedel, M. H., and Tongway, D. J. (2003). Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 3: implications at landscape scale. Journal of Arid Environments 55, 349–360.
| Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 3: implications at landscape scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tainton, N. M. (1999). ‘Veld Management in South Africa.’ (University of Natal Press: Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.)
Tainton, N. M., Groves, R. H., and Nash, R. (1977). Time of mowing and burning veld: short-term effects on production and tiller development. Proceedings of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 12, 59–64.
| Time of mowing and burning veld: short-term effects on production and tiller development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tongway, D. J., Sparrow, A. D., and Friedel, A. (2003). Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 1: soil and land resources. Journal of Arid Environments 55, 301–326.
| Degradation and recovery processes in arid grazing lands of central Australia. Part 1: soil and land resources.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tothill, J. C., and Gillies, C. (1992). The pasture lands of northern Australia. Tropical Grassland Society of Australia Occasional Publication No. 5, Brisbane, Qld. p.106.
Watson, I. W., and Novelly, P. E. (2012). Transitions across thresholds of vegetation states in the grazed rangelands of Western Australia. The Rangeland Journal 34, 231–238.
| Transitions across thresholds of vegetation states in the grazed rangelands of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weston, E. J., Harbison, J., Leslie, J. K., Rosenthal, K. M., and Mayer, R. J. (1981). ‘Assessment of the agricultural and pastoral potential of Queensland.’ Agriculture Branch Technical Report No. 27. (Queensland Department of Primary Industries: Brisbane, Qld.)
