Short-term effects of a prolonged blackwater event on aquatic fauna in the Murray River, Australia: considerations for future events
A. J. King A B C , Z. Tonkin A and J. Lieshcke A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Sustainability and Environment, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084, Australia.
B Present address: Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: Alison.King@cdu.edu.au
Marine and Freshwater Research 63(7) 576-586 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF11275
Submitted: 13 December 2011 Accepted: 8 May 2012 Published: 27 June 2012
Abstract
Blackwater contains high levels of dissolved organic carbon that can be rapidly consumed by microbes, sometimes leading to extremely low levels of dissolved oxygen (hypoxia) and drastic consequences for aquatic life, including fish kills. Drought-breaking rains in late 2010 inundated large areas of the Barmah–Millewa Forest, southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia, and resulted in a prolonged hypoxic blackwater event within the forest and the Murray River downstream. This study investigated the short-term effects of the blackwater event on fish and crayfish. Compared with non-affected sites, blackwater affected sites had: significantly higher abundances of emerged Murray crayfish (Euastacus armatus) that were vulnerable to desiccation, predation and exploitation; large numbers of dead or dying shrimp and yabbies; significantly reduced abundances of native fish; but contained similar abundances of alien fish species (particularly common carp, Cyprinus carpio). The nature of the mechanisms that caused these changes and the longer term significance of the event on the river system remains an important area for future research. We also propose a range of management considerations for reducing the blackwater impacts, such as the timing of environmental water delivery after prolonged drought and the importance of maintaining river–floodplain connectivity during flood periods.
Additional keywords: crustaceans, drought, environmental management, environmental water management, fish kills, floodplain, Murray cod, Murray crayfish, river regulation.
References
Anderson, M. J. (2001). A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Austral Ecology 26, 32–46.Anderson, M. J., Gorley, R. N., and Clarke, K. R. (2008). ‘PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: Guide to software and statistical methods.’ (PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK.)
Baldwin, D. S. (1999). Dissolved organic matter and phosphorus leached from fresh and ‘terrestrially’ aged river red gum leaves: implications for assessing river-floodplain interactions. Freshwater Biology 41, 675–685.
| Dissolved organic matter and phosphorus leached from fresh and ‘terrestrially’ aged river red gum leaves: implications for assessing river-floodplain interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXlslKjtLg%3D&md5=55f450e84f50305d71f70ffd4c588817CAS |
Baldwin, D. S., and Whitworth, K. (2009). Current conditions in the Wakool River and the potential for blackwater events resulting in fish deaths. MDFRC Technical Report 1/2009. MDFRC, Wodonga.
Baldwin, D. S., Howitt, J., and Edward, M. (2001). Blackwater event. Austasia Aquaculture 15, 21.
Beesley, L., Howard, K., Joachim, L., and King, A. (2010). Cultural conservation of freshwater turtles in Barmah–Millewa Forest. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 203. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne.
Bishop, K. A. (1980). Fish kills in relation to physical and chemical changes in Magela Creek (East Alligator River System, Northern Territory) at the beginning of the tropical wet season. Australian Zoologist 20, 485–500.
Boulton, A. J., and Lake, P. S. (1992). Benthic organic matter and detritivorous macroinvertebrates in two intermittent streams in south-eastern Australia. Hydrobiologia 241, 107–118.
| Benthic organic matter and detritivorous macroinvertebrates in two intermittent streams in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXhtFeiug%3D%3D&md5=bb512120e05a2b1b6469bcd7995bbd49CAS |
Bren, L. J., and Gibbs, N. L. (1988). Relationships between flood frequency, vegetation and topography in a river red gum forest. Australian Forest Research 16, 357–370.
Carpenter, S. R., and Kitchell, J. F. (1993). ‘The trophic cascade in lake ecosystems.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)
Chapman, L. J., and Mackenzie, D. J. (2009). Behavioral responses and ecological consequences. In ‘Fish Physiology’. (Eds J. G. Richards, A. P. Farrell and C. J. Brauner.) pp. 25–77. (Academic Press: London.)
Chong, J., and Ladson, A. R. (2002). Analysis and management of unseasonal flooding in the Barmah–Millewa Forest, Australia. River Research and Applications 19, 161–180.
| Analysis and management of unseasonal flooding in the Barmah–Millewa Forest, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke, K. R., and Warwick, R. M. (2001). ‘Change in Marine Communities: an Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation.’ 2nd edn. (PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK.)
Craig, J. K., and Crowder, L. B. (2005). Hypoxia-induced habitat shifts and energetic consequences in Atlantic croaker and brown shrimp on the Gulf of Mexico shelf. Marine Ecology Progress Series 294, 79–94.
| Hypoxia-induced habitat shifts and energetic consequences in Atlantic croaker and brown shrimp on the Gulf of Mexico shelf.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Craig, J. K., Crowder, L. B., and Henwood, T. A. (2005). Spatial distribution of brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus) on the northwestern Gulf of Mexico shelf: effects of abundance and hypoxia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62, 1295–1308.
| Spatial distribution of brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus) on the northwestern Gulf of Mexico shelf: effects of abundance and hypoxia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crook, D. A., and Gillanders, B. M. (2006). Use of otolith chemical signatures to estimate carp recruitment sources in the mid-Murray River, Australia. River Research and Applications 22, 871–879.
Downes, B. J., Barmuta, L. A., Fairweather, P. G., Faith, D. P., Keough, M. J., Lake, P. S., Mapstone, B. D., and Quinn, G. P. (2002). ‘Monitoring Ecological Impacts. Concepts and Practise in Flowing Waters.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)
Geddes, M. C., Musgrove, R. J., and Campbell, N. J. (1993). The feasibility of re-establishing the River Murray crayfish, Euastacus armatus, in the lower River Murray Freshwater Crayfish 9, 368–379.
Gehrke, P. C. (1988). Response surface analysis of teleost cardio-respiratory responses to temperature and dissolved oxygen. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 89, 587–592.
Gehrke, P. C., Revel, M. B., and Philbey, A. W. (1993). Effects of river red gum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, litter on Golden perch, Macquaria ambigua. Journal of Fish Biology 43, 265–279.
| Effects of river red gum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, litter on Golden perch, Macquaria ambigua.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gilligan, D., Rolls, R., Merrick, J., Lintermans, M., Duncan, P., and Koehn, J. (2007). Scoping the knowledge requirements for Murray crayfish (Euastacus armatus). Report to MDBC. NSW Department of Primary Industries, Cronulla.
Hladyz, S., Watkins, S. C., Whitworth, K. L., and Baldwin, D. S. (2011). Flows and hypoxic blackwater events in managed ephemeral river channels. Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) 401, 117–125.
| Flows and hypoxic blackwater events in managed ephemeral river channels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXktF2hs7Y%3D&md5=9f0c128e153b587b4ba735ebdc0062efCAS |
Horwitz, P. (1995). The conservation status of Australian freshwater crayfish: review and update. Freshwater Crayfish 10, 70–80.
Howitt, J., Baldwin, D., Rees, G., and Williams, J. (2007). Modelling blackwater: predicting water quality during flooding of lowland river forests. Ecological Modelling 203, 229–242.
| Modelling blackwater: predicting water quality during flooding of lowland river forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Junk, W. J., Bayley, P. B., and Sparks, R. E. (1989). The flood pulse concept in river–floodplain systems. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 106, 110–127.
King, A. J. (2005). Fish in the Barmah–Millewa Forest – history, status and management challenges. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 11, 117–126.
King, A. J., Tonkin, Z., and Mahoney, J. M. (2007). Assessing the effectiveness of environmental flows on fish recruitment in Barmah–Millewa Forest. Report to Murray–Darling Basin Commission. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne.
King, A. J., Ward, K. A., O’Connor, P., Green, D., Tonkin, Z., and Mahoney, J. (2010). Adaptive management of an environmental watering event to enhance native fish spawning and recruitment. Freshwater Biology 55, 17–31.
| Adaptive management of an environmental watering event to enhance native fish spawning and recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koehn, J. D., Brumley, A. R., and Gehrke, P. C. (2000). ‘Managing the Impacts of Carp.’ (Bureau of Resource Sciences: Canberra.)
Koehn, J. D., McKenzie, J. A., O’Mahony, D. J., Nicol, S. J., O’Connor, J. P., and O’Connor, W. G. (2009). Movements of Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii peelii) in a large Australian lowland river. Ecology Freshwater Fish 18, 594–602.
| Movements of Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii peelii) in a large Australian lowland river.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leitch, C. (1989). Towards a strategy for managing the flooding requirements of Barmah Forest. Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Benalla.
Mallen-Cooper, M., Koehn, J., King, A., Stuart, I., and Zampatti, Z. (2007). Risk assessment of the proposed Chowilla regulator and managed floodplain inundations on fish. Fishway consulting services and Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Melbourne.
McKinnon, L. J. (1995). Emersion of Murray crayfish, Euastacus armatus (Decapoda: Parastacidae), from the Murray River due to post-flood water quality. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 107, 31–37.
McKinnon, L. J., and Shepheard, N. (1995). Factors contributing to a fish kill in Broken Creek. The Victorian Naturalist 112, 173–175.
McMaster, D., and Bond, N. (2008). A field and experimental study on the tolerances of fish to Eucalyptus camaldulensis leachate and low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Marine and Freshwater Research 59, 177–185.
| A field and experimental study on the tolerances of fish to Eucalyptus camaldulensis leachate and low dissolved oxygen concentrations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXisVWitLo%3D&md5=d2df3ddef1ef7a3a73ead810d3b3d153CAS |
McNeil, D. G., and Closs, G. P. (2007). Behavioural responses of a south-east Australian floodplain fish community to gradual hypoxia. Freshwater Biology 52, 412–420.
| Behavioural responses of a south-east Australian floodplain fish community to gradual hypoxia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjvFSit74%3D&md5=5c1632356418e2a044482d97b5b5a977CAS |
MDBC (2007). ‘Sustainable Rivers Audit Protocols – Approved Manual for Implementation Period 4: 2007–08.’ (Murray–Darling Basin Commission: Canberra.)
MDBMC (2001). ‘Interim operating rules and triggers for the use of the Barmah–Millewa Forest water allocation.’ (Murray–Darling Basin Ministerial Council, Canberra.)
Meyer, J. L. (1990). A blackwater perspective on riverine ecosystems. Bioscience 40, 643–651.
| A blackwater perspective on riverine ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morrongiello, J. R. (2011). Life history variation along environmental gradients in a freshwater fish, the southern pygmy perch Nannoperca australis. Ph.D. Thesis, Monash University, Melbourne.
Morrongiello, J. R., Bond, N. R., Crook, D. A., and Wong, B. B. M. (2011). Eucalyptus leachate inhibits reproduction in a freshwater fish. Freshwater Biology 56, 1736–1745.
| Eucalyptus leachate inhibits reproduction in a freshwater fish.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Connell, M. F., Baldwin, D. S., Robertson, A. I., and Rees, G. (2000). Release and bioavailability of dissolved organic matter from floodplain litter: influence of origin and oxygen levels. Freshwater Biology 45, 333–342.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXos1Omu7g%3D&md5=2734448f2b9b1ed7aacc50e7fbef1016CAS |
O’Connor, J. P., O’Mahoney, D. J., and O’Mahoney, J. M. (2005). Movements of Macquaria ambigua, in the Murray River, south-eastern Australia. Journal of Fish Biology 66, 392–403.
| Movements of Macquaria ambigua, in the Murray River, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Qualls, R. G., and Haines, B. L. (1992). Biodegradability of dissolved organic matter in forest throughfall, soil solution, and stream water. Soil Science Society of America Journal 56, 578–586.
| Biodegradability of dissolved organic matter in forest throughfall, soil solution, and stream water.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XktFequro%3D&md5=174d6c7abd261846dcc5bd62d64f878dCAS |
Richardson, B. A. (1981). Fish kill in the Belmore River, Macleay River drainage, NSW, and the possible influence of flood mitigation works. In ‘Proceedings of the Floodplain Management Conference’. (Canberra, AGPS: Canberra.)
Robertson, A. I., Bunn, S. E., Boon, P. I., and Walker, K. (1999). Sources, sinks and transformations of organic carbon in Australian floodplain rivers. Marine and Freshwater Research 50, 813–829.
| Sources, sinks and transformations of organic carbon in Australian floodplain rivers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXks1ymug%3D%3D&md5=8f56f8e6b9d1be415b295241aa4cafa4CAS |
Sparks, R. E. (1995). Need for ecosystem management of large rivers and their floodplains. Bioscience 45, 168–182.
| Need for ecosystem management of large rivers and their floodplains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stuart, I. G., and Jones, M. (2006). Large, regulated forest floodplain is an ideal recruitment zone for non-native common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Marine and Freshwater Research 57, 337–347.
| Large, regulated forest floodplain is an ideal recruitment zone for non-native common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thoms, M. C., Suter, P., Roberts, J., Koehn, J. D., Jones, G., Hillman, T. J., and Close, A. (2000). ‘Report of the River Murray scientific panel on environmental flows. River Murray – Dartmouth to Wellington and the Lower Darling River.’ (Murray–Darling Basin Commission: Canberra.)
Towns, D. R. (1985). Limnological characteristics of a South Australian intermittent stream brown-hill creek. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 36, 821–838.
| Limnological characteristics of a South Australian intermittent stream brown-hill creek.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Townsend, S. A., and Edwards, C. A. (2003). A fish kill event, hypoxia and other limnological impacts associated with early wet season flow into a lake on the Mary River floodplain, tropical northern Australia. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management 8, 169–176.
| A fish kill event, hypoxia and other limnological impacts associated with early wet season flow into a lake on the Mary River floodplain, tropical northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Usio, N., and Townsend, C. R. (2004). Roles of crayfish: consequences of predation and bioturbation for stream invertebrates. Ecology 85, 807–822.
| Roles of crayfish: consequences of predation and bioturbation for stream invertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watkins, S., Quinn, G., and Gawne, B. (2010). Changes in organic matter dynamics and physicochemistry associated with riparian vegetation loss and river regulation in floodplain wetlands of the Murray River, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 61, 1207–1217.
| Changes in organic matter dynamics and physicochemistry associated with riparian vegetation loss and river regulation in floodplain wetlands of the Murray River, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXht1yjsrjO&md5=252081df8ba99878e3413a252d18ef5dCAS |
Whitworth, K. L., Baldwin, D. S., and Kerr, J. L. (). Drought, floods and water quality: Drivers of a severe hypoxic blackwater event in a major river system (the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia). Journal of Hydrology , .
| Drought, floods and water quality: Drivers of a severe hypoxic blackwater event in a major river system (the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wu, R. S. S. (2009). Effects of hypoxia on fish reproduction and development. In ‘Fish Physiology’. (Eds J. G. Richards, A. P. Farrell and C. J. Brauner.) pp. 79–141. (Academic Press: London.)
