Register      Login
Marine and Freshwater Research Marine and Freshwater Research Society
Advances in the aquatic sciences
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Drill-cored rock pools: an effective method of ecological enhancement on artificial structures

Ally J. Evans A H , Louise B. Firth B C D , Stephen J. Hawkins C E , Elisabeth S. Morris F , Harry Goudge F and Pippa J. Moore A G
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A IBERS, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3FG, UK.

B School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.

C National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Waterfront Campus, University of Southampton, European Way, Southampton, Hampshire, SO14 3ZH, UK.

D School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, LL59 5AB, UK.

E School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK.

F Marine Ecological Solutions Ltd., Menai Bridge, Anglesey, L59 5EF, UK.

G Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6019, Australia.

H Corresponding author. Email: aje9@aber.ac.uk

Marine and Freshwater Research 67(1) 123-130 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14244
Submitted: 18 August 2014  Accepted: 8 May 2015   Published: 13 July 2015

Abstract

Coastal defences are proliferating in response to anticipated climate change and there is increasing need for ecologically sensitive design in their construction. Typically, these structures support lower biodiversity than natural rocky shores. Although several studies have tested habitat enhancement interventions that incorporate novel water-retaining features into coastal defences, there remains a need for additional long-term, fully replicated trials to identify alternative cost-effective designs. We created artificial rock pools of two depths (12 cm, 5 cm) by drill-coring into a shore-parallel intertidal granite breakwater, to investigate their potential as an intervention for delivering ecological enhancement. After 18 months the artificial rock pools supported greater species richness than adjacent granite rock surfaces on the breakwater, and similar species richness to natural rock pools on nearby rocky shores. Community composition was, however, different between artificial and natural pools. The depth of artificial rock pools did not affect richness or community structure. Although the novel habitats did not support the same communities as natural rock pools, they clearly provided important habitat for several species that were otherwise absent at mid-shore height on the breakwater. These findings reveal the potential of drill-cored rock pools as an affordable and easily replicated means of enhancing biodiversity on a variety of coastal defence structures, both at the design stage and retrospectively.

Additional keywords: coastal protection, complexity, conservation, ecological engineering, management, urban ecology.


References

Airoldi, L., and Beck, M. W. (2007). Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine Biology – an Annual Review 45, 345–405.

Airoldi, L., and Bulleri, F. (2011). Anthropogenic disturbance can determine the magnitude of opportunistic species responses on marine urban infrastructures. PLoS One 6, e22985.
Anthropogenic disturbance can determine the magnitude of opportunistic species responses on marine urban infrastructures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtFWitLvL&md5=a33a9d766da9af3943c10a6a00023077CAS | 21826224PubMed |

Anderson, M. J. (2001). A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Austral Ecology 26, 32–46.

Anderson, M. J., and Robinson, J. (2003). Generalized discriminant analysis based on distances. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Statistics 45, 301–318.
Generalized discriminant analysis based on distances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barnes, J. R., and Gonor, J. J. (1973). The larval settling response of the lined chiton Tonicella lineata. Marine Biology 20, 259–264.

Bracewell, S. A., Robinson, L. A., Firth, L. B., and Knights, A. M. (2013). Predicting free-space occupancy on novel artificial structures by an invasive intertidal barnacle using a removal experiment. PLoS One 8, e74457.
Predicting free-space occupancy on novel artificial structures by an invasive intertidal barnacle using a removal experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhsVGitbrF&md5=6eb51287611364e620859573cfbbdcedCAS | 24023944PubMed |

Browne, M., and Chapman, M. (2014). Mitigating against the loss of species by adding artificial intertidal pools to existing seawalls. Marine Ecology Progress Series 497, 119–129.
Mitigating against the loss of species by adding artificial intertidal pools to existing seawalls.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapman, M. G. (2003). Paucity of mobile species on constructed seawalls: effects of urbanization on biodiversity. Marine Ecology Progress Series 264, 21–29.
Paucity of mobile species on constructed seawalls: effects of urbanization on biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapman, M. G., and Blockley, D. J. (2009). Engineering novel habitats on urban infrastructure to increase intertidal biodiversity. Oecologia 161, 625–635.
Engineering novel habitats on urban infrastructure to increase intertidal biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1MrlsF2htA%3D%3D&md5=fc6c499066d4aa8fee72b00c3a42d4c2CAS | 19551409PubMed |

Chapman, M. G., and Bulleri, F. (2003). Intertidal seawalls – new features of landscape in intertidal environments. Landscape and Urban Planning 62, 159–172.
Intertidal seawalls – new features of landscape in intertidal environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapman, M. G., and Underwood, A. J. (2011). Evaluation of ecological engineering of ‘armoured’ shorelines to improve their value as habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400, 302–313.
Evaluation of ecological engineering of ‘armoured’ shorelines to improve their value as habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clarke, K. (1993). Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure. Australian Journal of Ecology 18, 117–143.
Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Connell, S. D., and Glasby, T. M. (1999). Do urban structures influence local abundance and diversity of subtidal epibiota? A case study from Sydney Harbour, Australia. Marine Environmental Research 47, 373–387.
Do urban structures influence local abundance and diversity of subtidal epibiota? A case study from Sydney Harbour, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhvVyksLY%3D&md5=6200160ef45a3aa1e5955901b78ad652CAS |

Cunningham, P. N., Hawkins, S. J., Jones, H. D., and Burrows, M. T. (1984). The geographical distribution of Sabellaria alveolata in England, Wales and Scotland, with investigations into the community structure of, and the effects of trampling on Sabellaria alveolata colonies. N.C.C. Report HF3/11/22, University of Manchester, Manchester.

Davis, J. L. D., Levin, L. A., and Walther, S. M. (2002). Artificial armored shorelines: sites for open-coast species in a southern California bay. Marine Biology 140, 1249–1262.
Artificial armored shorelines: sites for open-coast species in a southern California bay.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dethier, M. N., Donald, K. M. C., and Strathmann, R. R. (2003). Colonization and connectivity of habitat patches for coastal marine species distant from source populations. Conservation Biology 17, 1024–1035.
Colonization and connectivity of habitat patches for coastal marine species distant from source populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dubois, S., and Retie, C. (2002). Biodiversity associated with Sabellaria alveolata (Polychaeta: Sabellariidae) reefs: effects of human disturbances. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 82, 817–826.
Biodiversity associated with Sabellaria alveolata (Polychaeta: Sabellariidae) reefs: effects of human disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fairweather, P. G. (1988). Movements of intertidal whelks (Morula marginalba and Thais orbita) in relation to availability of prey and shelter. Marine Biology 100, 63–68.
Movements of intertidal whelks (Morula marginalba and Thais orbita) in relation to availability of prey and shelter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Firth, L. B., Mieszkowska, N., Thompson, R. C., and Hawkins, S. J. (2013a). Climate change and adaptational impacts in coastal systems: the case of sea defences. Environmental Science. Processes & Impacts 15, 1665–1670.
Climate change and adaptational impacts in coastal systems: the case of sea defences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtlWht77O&md5=b66620c19bd953139a651aa0ef5e2067CAS |

Firth, L. B., Thompson, R. C., White, F. J., Schofield, M., Skov, M. W., Hoggart, S. P. G., Jackson, J., Knights, A. M., and Hawkins, S. J. (2013b). The importance of water-retaining features for biodiversity on artificial intertidal coastal defence structures. Diversity & Distributions 19, 1275–1283.
The importance of water-retaining features for biodiversity on artificial intertidal coastal defence structures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Firth, L. B., Thompson, R. C., Bohn, K., Abbiati, M., Airoldi, L., Bouma, T. J., Bozzeda, F., Ceccherelli, V. U., Colangelo, M. A., Evans, A., Ferrario, F., Hanley, M. E., Hinz, H., Hoggart, S. P. G., Jackson, J. E., Moore, P., Morgan, E. H., Perkol-Finkel, S., Skov, M. W., Strain, E. M., van Belzen, J., and Hawkins, S. J. (2014a). Between a rock and a hard place: environmental and engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures. Coastal Engineering 87, 122–135.
Between a rock and a hard place: environmental and engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Firth, L. B., Schofield, M., White, F. J., Skov, M. W., and Hawkins, S. J. (2014b). Biodiversity in intertidal rock pools: informing engineering criteria for artificial habitat enhancement in the built environment. Marine Environmental Research 102, 122–130.
Biodiversity in intertidal rock pools: informing engineering criteria for artificial habitat enhancement in the built environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXmsVCisbo%3D&md5=ffedffa19deeea758e993a0c142d435dCAS | 24746927PubMed |

Firth, L. B., Mieszkowska, N., Grant, L., Bush, L., Davies, A. J., Frost, M. T., Cunningham, P. N., Moschella, P., and Hawkins, S. J. (2015). Historical comparisons reveal multiple drivers of decadal change of an ecosystem engineer at the range edge. Ecology and Evolution 5, 3210–3222.
Historical comparisons reveal multiple drivers of decadal change of an ecosystem engineer at the range edge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Firth, L. B., White, F. J., Schofield, M., Hanley, M. E., Burrows, M. T., Thompson, R. C., Skov, M. W., Evans, A. J., Moore, P. J., and Hawkins, S. J. (2016). Facing the future: the importance of substratum features for ecological engineering of artificial habitats in the rocky intertidal. Marine and Freshwater Research 67, 131–143.
Facing the future: the importance of substratum features for ecological engineering of artificial habitats in the rocky intertidal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

H.M. Government (2011). UK Marine Policy Statement. The Stationery Office, London.

Gray, D. R., and Hodgson, A. N. (1998). Foraging and homing behaviour in the high-shore, crevice-dwelling limpet Helcion pectunculus (Prosobranchia: Patellidae). Marine Biology 132, 283–294.
Foraging and homing behaviour in the high-shore, crevice-dwelling limpet Helcion pectunculus (Prosobranchia: Patellidae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harlin, M. M., and Lindbergh, J. M. (1977). Selection of substrata by seaweeds: optimal surface relief. Marine Biology 40, 33–40.
Selection of substrata by seaweeds: optimal surface relief.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

IPCC (2013). Summary for policymakers. In ‘Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change’. (Eds T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P. M. Midgley.) pp. 3–29. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, and New York.)

Johnson, M. P., Hughes, R. N., Burrows, M. T., and Hawkins, S. J. (1998). Beyond the predation halo: small scale gradients in barnacle populations affected by the relative refuge value of crevices. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 231, 163–170.
Beyond the predation halo: small scale gradients in barnacle populations affected by the relative refuge value of crevices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kelaher, B. P., Chapman, M. G., and Underwood, A. J. (2001). Spatial patterns of diverse macrofaunal assemblages in coralline turf and their associations with environmental variables. The Journal of Molluscan Studies 81, 917–930.

Knight-Jones, E. W., and Stevenson, J. P. (1950). Gregariousness during settlement in the barnacle Elminius modestus Darwin. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 29, 281–297.
Gregariousness during settlement in the barnacle Elminius modestus Darwin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Martins, G., Hawkins, S., Thompson, R., and Jenkins, S. (2007). Community structure and functioning in intertidal rock pools: effects of pool size and shore height at different successional stages. Marine Ecology Progress Series 329, 43–55.
Community structure and functioning in intertidal rock pools: effects of pool size and shore height at different successional stages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Martins, G. M., Thompson, R. C., Neto, A. I., Hawkins, S. J., and Jenkins, S. R. (2010). Enhancing stocks of the exploited limpet Patella candei d’Orbigny via modifications in coastal engineering. Biological Conservation 143, 203–211.
Enhancing stocks of the exploited limpet Patella candei d’Orbigny via modifications in coastal engineering.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Metaxas, A., and Scheibling, R. E. (1993). Community structure and organization of tidepools. Marine Ecology Progress Series 98, 187–198.
Community structure and organization of tidepools.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moschella, P. S., Abbiati, M., Åberg, P., Airoldi, L., Anderson, J. M., Bacchiocchi, F., Bulleri, F., Dinesen, G. E., Frost, M., Gacia, E., Granhag, L., Jonsson, P. R., Satta, M. P., Sundelöf, A., Thompson, R. C., and Hawkins, S. J. (2005). Low-crested coastal defence structures as artificial habitats for marine life: using ecological criteria in design. Coastal Engineering 52, 1053–1071.
Low-crested coastal defence structures as artificial habitats for marine life: using ecological criteria in design.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Muxagata, E., Williams, J., and Sheader, M. (2004). Composition and temporal distribution of cirripede larvae in Southampton Water, England, with particular reference to the secondary production of Elminius modestus. ICES Journal of Marine Science 61, 585–595.
Composition and temporal distribution of cirripede larvae in Southampton Water, England, with particular reference to the secondary production of Elminius modestus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

O’Connor, N. E., and Crowe, T. P. (2008). Do mussel patches provide a refuge for algae from grazing gastropods? The Journal of Molluscan Studies 74, 75–78.
Do mussel patches provide a refuge for algae from grazing gastropods?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pinn, E. H., Mitchell, K., and Corkill, J. (2005). The assemblages of groynes in relation to substratum age, aspect and microhabitat. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 62, 271–282.
The assemblages of groynes in relation to substratum age, aspect and microhabitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pister, B. (2009). Urban marine ecology in southern California: the ability of riprap structures to serve as rocky intertidal habitat. Marine Biology 156, 861–873.
Urban marine ecology in southern California: the ability of riprap structures to serve as rocky intertidal habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Seed, R. (1969). The ecology of Mytilus edulis L. (Lamellibranchiata) on exposed rocky shores. Oecologia 3, 277–316.
The ecology of Mytilus edulis L. (Lamellibranchiata) on exposed rocky shores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Seed, R. (1996). Patterns of biodiversity in the macro-invertebrate fauna associated with mussel patches on rocky shores. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 76, 203–210.
Patterns of biodiversity in the macro-invertebrate fauna associated with mussel patches on rocky shores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sousa, W. P. (1979). Experimental investigations of disturbance and ecological succession in a rocky intertidal algal community. Ecological Monographs 49, 227–254.
Experimental investigations of disturbance and ecological succession in a rocky intertidal algal community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Steneck, R. S., and Dethier, M. N. (1994). A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities. Oikos 69, 476–498.
A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Suchanek, T. H. (1978). The ecology of Mytilus edulis L. in exposed rocky intertidal communities. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 31, 105–120.
The ecology of Mytilus edulis L. in exposed rocky intertidal communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

UN (2014). UN atlas of the oceans. Available at http://www.oceansatlas.org/index.jsp [Verified 12 May 2014].

Underwood, A. J. (1997). ‘Experiments in Ecology: Their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

USACE (2012). Making great lakes and coastal structures greener. USACE Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, MS, USA. Available at http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/dots/doer/pdf/GLGB-Booklet.pdf [Verified 12 May 2014].

Volckaert, A., Engledow, H., Degraer, S., Vincx, M., Coppejans, E., and Hoffman, M. (2002). The epilithic macrofauna and macroalgae of the hard substrates along the Belgian coast. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Biologie 72, 13–15.

Wilson, D. P. (1968). The settlement behaviour of the larvae of Sabellaria alveolata (L.). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 48, 387–435.
The settlement behaviour of the larvae of Sabellaria alveolata (L.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |