The extent and protection of Australia’s deep sea
Todd Bond
A B * and Alan Jamieson A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
B UWA Oceans Institute, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
Marine and Freshwater Research 73(12) 1520-1526 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF22156
Submitted: 1 August 2022 Accepted: 28 September 2022 Published: 19 October 2022
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Context: Australia has the third largest exclusive economic zone in the world, but little is known about its deepest parts because, historically, research has focussed on coast regions or in the top 1000 m.
Aim: We aim to identify the extent of Australia’s deep sea, the deepest locations in Australian waters, and investigate how much of Australia’s deep sea is located within marine parks.
Methods: We use altimetry-derived water depth to calculate the total area in 1000-m bins.
Key results: The total area of Australian waters, excluding Antarctic waters, is 8 914 134 km2, of which, 70.4% is deep sea greater than 1000 m and 48% is deeper than the 3000-m abyssal boundary. In total, 56% of Australian Marine Parks are deeper than 3000 m and 20 of 61 marine reserves include water deeper than 5000 m.
Conclusions: The Convention on Biological Diversity calls for marine protected areas globally to increase from 7.7 to 30% by 2030: Australia has already placed over 40% of its waters under protection. Despite this, there are no long-term programs monitoring the deep sea and Australia has not produced a globally significant amount of deep-sea science.
Implications: Herein lies opportunities for Australia to understand fully its largest habitat and become the global exemplar of deep-sea science and conservation.
Keywords: abyssal plain, Australian Marine Parks, Australian waters, bathymetry, deep sea, deep-sea mining, exclusive economic zone, hadal, manganese nodules.
References
Albers, HJ, and Ashworth, MF (2022). Economics of marine protected areas: assessing the literature for marine protected area network expansions. Annual Review of Resource Economics 14, 533–554.| Economics of marine protected areas: assessing the literature for marine protected area network expansions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barr, LM, and Possingham, HP (2013). Are outcomes matching policy commitments in Australian marine conservation planning? Marine Policy 42, 39–48.
| Are outcomes matching policy commitments in Australian marine conservation planning?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blum, JD, Drazen, JC, Johnson, MW, Popp, BN, Motta, LC, and Jamieson, AJ (2020). Mercury isotopes identify near-surface marine mercury in deep-sea trench biota. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117, 29292–29298.
| Mercury isotopes identify near-surface marine mercury in deep-sea trench biota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buxton CD, Cochrane P (2015) Commonwealth marine reserves review report of the bioregional advisory panel. Available at www.marinereservesreview.gov.au/reports
Childs, J (2022). Geographies of deep sea mining: a critical review. The Extractive Industries and Society 9, 101044.
| Geographies of deep sea mining: a critical review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cockerell, B, Pressey, RL, Grech, A, Álvarez-Romero, JG, Ward, T, and Devillers, R (2020). Representation does not necessarily reduce threats to biodiversity: Australia’s Commonwealth marine protected area system, 2012–2018. Biological Conservation 252, 108813.
| Representation does not necessarily reduce threats to biodiversity: Australia’s Commonwealth marine protected area system, 2012–2018.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coffin MF, Whittaker JM, Dazcko N, Halpin J, Bernardel G, Picard K, Gardner R et al. (2021) Development of William’s Ridge, Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge: tectonics, hotspot magmatism, microcontinents, and Australia’s Extended Continental Shelf. Australian Earth Science Convention Australia. Available at https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/53561/
Department of Agriculture, Water and Environment (2022) Australian Marine Parks. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/fed/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid={CD8877F3-8C39-4A20-A53F-070FBEE5AF3C}
Director of National Parks (2018) ‘South-west Marine Parks Network Management Plan 2018.’ (Director of National Parks: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Director of National Parks (2019) ‘South-west Marine Parks Network Management Plan 2018-28: Implementation Plan 1.’ (Director of National Parks: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Evans K, Bax N, Smith DC (2017) Australia state of the environment 2016: marine environment, independent report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Farrelly, CA, and Ahyong, ST (2019). Deepwater decapod, stomatopod and lophogastrid Crustacea from Eastern Australia and the Great Australian Bight collected in 2015–2017: preliminary identifications of 191 species. Museum Victoria Science Reports 21, 1–97.
| Deepwater decapod, stomatopod and lophogastrid Crustacea from Eastern Australia and the Great Australian Bight collected in 2015–2017: preliminary identifications of 191 species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frakes, LA, Exon, NF, and Granath, JW (1977). Preliminary studies on the Cape Leeuwin manganese nodule deposit off Western Australia. BMR Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics 2, 66–69.
Geoscience Australia (2020) Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973 – Australian Maritime Boundaries 2020 – Geodatabase. Available at https://data.gov.au/dataset/ds-ga-38337c55-6fdd-43b7-a134-a2511d4a6eff/details?q=
Gunton, LM, Kupriyanova, EK, Alvestad, T, Avery, L, Blake, JA, Biriukova, O, Böggemann, M, et al. (2021). Annelids of the eastern Australian abyss collected by the 2017 RV ‘Investigator’ voyage. ZooKeys 1020, 1–198.
| Annelids of the eastern Australian abyss collected by the 2017 RV ‘Investigator’ voyage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heap, AD, and Harris, PT (2008). Geomorphology of the Australian margin and adjacent seafloor. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 55, 555–585.
| Geomorphology of the Australian margin and adjacent seafloor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hein JR (2016) Manganese Nodules. In ‘Encyclopedia of marine geosciences’. (Eds J Harff, M Merschede, S Peteren, J Thiede) pp. 408–412. (Springer: New York, NY, USA)
Jamieson, AJ, Malkocs, T, Piertney, SB, Fujii, T, and Zhang, Z (2017). Bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants in the deepest ocean fauna. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1, 0051.
| Bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants in the deepest ocean fauna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jamieson, AJ, Brooks, LSR, Reid, WDK, Piertney, SB, Narayanaswamy, BE, and Linley, TD (2019). Microplastics and synthetic particles ingested by deep-sea amphipods in six of the deepest marine ecosystems on Earth. Royal Society Open Science 6, 180667.
| Microplastics and synthetic particles ingested by deep-sea amphipods in six of the deepest marine ecosystems on Earth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kennett, JP, and Watkins, ND (1975). Deep-sea erosion and manganese nodule development in the Southeast Indian Ocean. Science 188, 1011–1013.
| Deep-sea erosion and manganese nodule development in the Southeast Indian Ocean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
MacIntosh, H, Althaus, A, Williams, A, Tanner, JE, Alderslade, P, Ahyong, ST, Bax, N, et al. (2018). Invertebrate diversity in the deep Great Australian Bight (200-5000 m). Marine Biodiversity Records 11, 23.
| Invertebrate diversity in the deep Great Australian Bight (200-5000 m).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Margules, CR, and Pressey, RL (2000). Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405, 243–253.
| Systematic conservation planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miller, KA, Thompson, KF, Johnston, P, and Santillo, D (2018). An overview of seabed mining including the current state of development, environmental impacts, and knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Marine Science 4, 418.
| An overview of seabed mining including the current state of development, environmental impacts, and knowledge gaps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Noakes LC, Jones HA (1974) ‘Mineral Resources Offshore. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics.’ (Department of Minerals and Energy: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
O’Hara, TD, Williams, A, Ahyong, ST, Alderslade, P, Alvestad, T, Bray, D, Burghardt, I, Budaeva, N, Criscione, F, Crowther, AL, Ekins, M, Eléaume, M, Farrelly, CA, Finn, JK, Georgieva, MN, Graham, A, Gomon, M, Gowlett-Holmes, K, Gunton, LM, Hallan, A, Hosie, AM, Hutchings, P, Kise, H, Köhler, F, Konsgrud, JA, Kupriyanova, E, Lu, CC, Mackenzie, M, Mah, C, MacIntosh, H, Merrin, KL, Miskelly, A, Mitchell, ML, Moore, K, Murray, A, O’loughlin, PM, Paxton, H, Pogonoski, JJ, Staples, D, Watson, JE, Wilson, RS, Zhang, J, and Bax, NJ (2020a). The lower bathyal and abyssal seafloor fauna of eastern Australia. Marine Biodiversity Records 13, 11.
| The lower bathyal and abyssal seafloor fauna of eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Hara, TD, Williams, A, Althaus, F, Ross, AS, and Bax, NJ (2020b). Regional-scale patterns of deep seafloor biodiversity for conservation assessment. Diversity and Distributions 26, 479–494.
| Regional-scale patterns of deep seafloor biodiversity for conservation assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Hara, TD, Williams, A, Woolley, SNC, Nau, AW, and Bax, NJ (2020c). Deep-sea temperate-tropical faunal transition across uniform environmental gradients. Deep-Sea Research – I. Oceanographic Research Papers 161, 103283.
| Deep-sea temperate-tropical faunal transition across uniform environmental gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pressey, RL (2004). Conservation planning and biodiversity: assembling the best data for the job. Conservation Biology 18, 1677–1681.
| Conservation planning and biodiversity: assembling the best data for the job.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pressey RL, Alvarez-Romero J, Devillers R, Ward TJ (2021) Australia’s marine (un)protected areas: government zoning bias has left marine life in peril since 2012. In The Conversation, 23 February 2021. Available at https://theconversation.com/australias-marine-un-protected-areas-government-zoning-bias-has-left-marine-life-in-peril-since-2012-153795
Roberts, KE, Valkan, RS, and Cook, CN (2018). Measuring progress in marine protection: a new set of metrics to evaluate the strength of marine protected area networks. Biological Conservation 219, 20–27.
| Measuring progress in marine protection: a new set of metrics to evaluate the strength of marine protected area networks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sharma R (2022) Approach towards deep-sea mining: current status and future prospects. In ‘Perspectives on deep-sea mining’. (Ed. R Sharma) pp. 13–52. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
| Crossref |
Thresher, R, Althaus, F, Adkins, J, Gowlett-Holmes, K, Alderslade, P, Dowdney, J, Cho, W, Gagnon, A, Staples, D, McEnnulty, F, and Williams, A (2014). Strong depth-related zonation of megabenthos on a rocky continental margin (∼700–4000 m) off Southern Tasmania, Australia. PLoS ONE 9, e85872.
| Strong depth-related zonation of megabenthos on a rocky continental margin (∼700–4000 m) off Southern Tasmania, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trebilco R, Fischer M, Hunter C, Hobday AJ, Thomas L, Evans K (2021) ‘Australia state of the environment 2021: marine.’ (Centre for Marine Socioecology: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Turnbull, JW, Johnston, EL, and Clark, GF (2021). Evaluating the social and ecological effectiveness of partially protected marine areas. Conservation Biology 35, 921–932.
| Evaluating the social and ecological effectiveness of partially protected marine areas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
UN Genreal Assembly (1982) United Nations convention on the Law of the Sea. Available at https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm
Watkins, ND, and Kennett, JP (1977). Erosion of deep-sea sediments in the Southern Ocean between longitudes 70°E and 190°E and contrasts in manganese nodule development. Marine Geology 23, 103–111.
| Erosion of deep-sea sediments in the Southern Ocean between longitudes 70°E and 190°E and contrasts in manganese nodule development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, A, Althaus, F, Pogonoski, J, Osterhage, D, Gomon, M, Graham, K, Appleyard, SA, et al. (2018). Composition, diversity and biogeographic affinities of the deep-sea (200–3000 m) fish assemblage in the Great Australian Bight, Australia. Deep-Sea Research – II. Topical Studies in Oceanography 157–158, 92–105.
| Composition, diversity and biogeographic affinities of the deep-sea (200–3000 m) fish assemblage in the Great Australian Bight, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
