Register      Login
Marine and Freshwater Research Marine and Freshwater Research Society
Advances in the aquatic sciences
REVIEW (Open Access)

Celebrating women conducting research in freshwater ecology … and how the citation game is damaging them

Barbara J. Downes A B and Jill Lancaster A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A School of Geography, The University of Melbourne, 221 Bouverie Street, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

B Corresponding author. Email: barbarad@unimelb.edu.au

Marine and Freshwater Research 71(2) 139-155 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF18436
Submitted: 11 November 2018  Accepted: 17 January 2019   Published: 16 April 2019

Journal Compilation © CSIRO Publishing 2020 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND

Abstract

We highlight women’s contributions to freshwater ecology by firstly considering the historical context and gender-based barriers faced by women attempting to gain an education and secure research jobs in science over the past 100+ years. The stories of four remarkable, pioneering women in freshwater ecology (Kathleen Carpenter, Ann Chapman, Rosemary Lowe-McConnell and Ruth Patrick) illustrate the impact of barriers, emphasise the significance of their contributions and provide inspiration for the challenges ahead. Women still face barriers to participation in science, and the second part of the paper focuses on a current form of discrimination, which is citation metrics used to measure the ‘quality’ or ‘impact’ of research. We show that arguments that citation metrics reflect research quality are logically flawed, and that women are directly disadvantaged by this practice. Women are also indirectly disadvantaged in ecology because they are more likely to carry out empirical than theoretical research, and publications are generated more slowly from empirical research. Surveys of citation patterns in ecology reveal also that women are less likely to be authors of review papers, which receive three times more citations than do original articles. Unless unfettered use of citation metrics is stopped, research will be damaged, and women will be prominent casualties.

Additional keywords: citation counts, gender bias, h-index, journal impact factor, research impact, research quality.


References

Abramo, G. (2018). Revisiting the scientometric conceptualization of impact and its measurement. Journal of Informetrics 12, 590–597.
Revisiting the scientometric conceptualization of impact and its measurement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Aksnes, D. W. (2006). Citation rates and perceptions of scientific contribution. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57, 169–185.
Citation rates and perceptions of scientific contribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Aksnes, D. W., and Taxt, R. E. (2004). Peer reviews and bibliometric indicators: a comparative study at a Norwegian university. Research Evaluation 13, 33–41.
Peer reviews and bibliometric indicators: a comparative study at a Norwegian university.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bapte, V. D., and Gedam, J. (2018). A scientometric profile of Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati during 1996–2017. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology 38, 326–333.
A scientometric profile of Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati during 1996–2017.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barres, B. A. (2006). Does gender matter? Science 442, 133–136.

Bell, S. (2009). ‘Women in Science: Maximising Productivity, Diversity and Innovation.’ (Federation of Australian Scientific and Technological Societies: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Bendels, M. H. K., Müller, R., Brueggmann, D., and Groneberg, D. A. (2018). Gender disparities in high-quality research revealed by Nature Index journals. PLoS One 13, e0189136.
Gender disparities in high-quality research revealed by Nature Index journals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bhui, T., and Sahu, N. B. (2018). Publications by faculty members of humanities and social science departments of IIT Kharagpur: a bibliometric study. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology 38, 403–409.
Publications by faculty members of humanities and social science departments of IIT Kharagpur: a bibliometric study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bornmann, L., and Daniel, H.-D. (2008). What do citation counts measure? A review of studies on citing behavior. The Journal of Documentation 64, 45–80.
What do citation counts measure? A review of studies on citing behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bott, T. L., and Sweeney, B. W. (2014) ‘Ruth Patrick 1907–2013. A Biographical Memoir.’ (National Academy of Science: Washington, DC, USA.)

Bruton, M. N. (1994). The life and work of Rosemary Lowe-McConnell: pioneer in tropical fish ecology. Environmental Biology of Fishes 41, 67–80.
The life and work of Rosemary Lowe-McConnell: pioneer in tropical fish ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Burrows, R. (2012). Living with the h-index? Metric assemblages in the contemporary academy. The Sociological Review 60, 355–372.
Living with the h-index? Metric assemblages in the contemporary academy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cameron, E. Z., White, A. M., and Gray, M. E. (2016). Solving the productivity and impact puzzle: do men outperform women, or are metrics biased? Bioscience 66, 245–252.
Solving the productivity and impact puzzle: do men outperform women, or are metrics biased?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Carpenter, K. E. (1924). A study of the fauna of rivers polluted by lead mining in the Aberystwyth district of Cardiganshire. Annals of Applied Biology 11, 1–23.
A study of the fauna of rivers polluted by lead mining in the Aberystwyth district of Cardiganshire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Carpenter, K. E. (1928). ‘Life in Inland Waters: with Especial Reference to Animals.’ (Sidgewick & Jackson: London, UK.)

Chapman, A., Lewis, M. H., and Stout, V. M. (1976). ‘Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand.’ (Collins: Auckland, New Zealand.)

Chipman, E. (1986). ‘Women on the Ice: a History of Women in the Far South.’ (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Clark, K. E. (1957). ‘America’s Psychologists: a Survey of a Growing Profession.’ (American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA.)

Clarke, E. H. (1874). ‘Sex in Education: or, a Fair Chance for the Girls.’ (James R Osgood and Co.: Boston, MA, USA.)

Duigan, C. (2018). Who was … Kathleen Carpenter? The Biologist 65, 22–25.

Ebadi, A., and Schiffauerova, A. (2016). iSEER: an intelligent automatic computer system for scientific evaluation of researchers. Scientometrics 107, 477–498.
iSEER: an intelligent automatic computer system for scientific evaluation of researchers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Elango, B. (2019). A bibliometric analysis of literature on engineering research among BRIC countries. Collection and Curation 38, 9–14.
A bibliometric analysis of literature on engineering research among BRIC countries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Elton, C. S. (1927). ‘Animal Ecology.’ (Sidgewick & Jackson: London, UK.)

Evans, M. (2005). ‘Killing Thinking: the Death of the Universities.’ (Blooomsbury Publishing: London, UK.)

Garfield, E. (1970). Citation indexing for studying science. Nature 227, 669–671.
Citation indexing for studying science.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 4914589PubMed |

Garfield, E., and Welljams-Dorof, A. (1992). Of Nobel class: a citation perspective on high impact research authors. Theoretical Medicine 13, 117–135.
Of Nobel class: a citation perspective on high impact research authors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1412072PubMed |

Gerow, A., Hu, Y., Boyd-Graber, J., Blei, D. M., and Evans, J. A. (2018). Measuring discursive influence across scholarship. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115, 3308–3313.
Measuring discursive influence across scholarship.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29531061PubMed |

Gingras, Y. (2014). Criteria for evaluating indicators. In ‘Beyond Bibliometrics: Harnessing Multidimensional Indicators of Scholarly Impact’. (Eds B. Cronin and C. R. Sugimoto.) pp. 109–125. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA.)

Green, J., and Boothroyd, I. (1999). Ann Chapman: inspirational limnologist. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 333–340.
Ann Chapman: inspirational limnologist.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Haller, B. (2014). Theoretical and empirical perspectives in ecology and evolution: a survey. Bioscience 64, 907–916.
Theoretical and empirical perspectives in ecology and evolution: a survey.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heward, C. (2005). Women and careers in higher education: what is the problem? In ‘Breaking Boundaries: Women in Higher Education’. (Eds L. Morely and V. Walsh.) pp. 9–22. (Taylor & Francis: London, UK.)

Hirsch, J. E. (2005). An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102, 16569–16572.
An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16275915PubMed |

Hood, W. W., and Wilson, C. S. (2001). The literature of bibliometrics, scientometrics, and informetrics. Scientometrics 52, 291–314.
The literature of bibliometrics, scientometrics, and informetrics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hubbard, R. (1990). ‘The Politics of Women’s Biology.’ (Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ, USA.)

Jaskiene, J. (2015). HRM practices enhancing research performance. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences 213, 775–780.
HRM practices enhancing research performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnes, G. (1987). Research performance indications in the university sector. Higher Education Quarterly 42, 54–71.
Research performance indications in the university sector.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jones, B. (2012). Women won’t like working in Antarctica as there are no shops and hairdressers. In The Telegraph, 20 May 2012. Available at www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/9260864/Women-wont-like-working-in-Antarctica-as-there-are-no-shops-and-hairdressers.html [Verified 4 November 2018].

Kelly, C. D., and Jennions, M. D. (2006). The h index and career assessment by numbers. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21, 167–170.
The h index and career assessment by numbers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kingsland, S. E. (2005). ‘The Evolution of American Ecology, 1890–2000.’ (John Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD, USA.)

Kostoff, R. N. (1998). The use and misuse of citation analysis in research evaluation. Scientometrics 43, 27–43.
The use and misuse of citation analysis in research evaluation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lake, M. (1999). ‘Getting Equal: the History of Australian Feminism.’ (Allen & Unwin: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Leimu, R., and Koricheva, J. (2005). What determines the citation frequency of ecological papers? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 28–32.
What determines the citation frequency of ecological papers?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lindenmayer, D. B., and Likens, G. E. (2011). Losing the culture of ecology. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 92, 245–246.
Losing the culture of ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lindsey, D. (1989). Using citation counts as a measure of quality in science. Measuring what’s measurable rather than what’s valid. Scientometrics 15, 189–203.
Using citation counts as a measure of quality in science. Measuring what’s measurable rather than what’s valid.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lowe, R. H. (1955). New species of Tilapia (Pisces, Cichlidae) from Lake Jipe and Pangani River, East Africa. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). Historical Series 2, 349–368.

Lowe-McConnell, R. H. (1975). ‘Fish Communities in Tropical Freshwaters: their Distribution, Ecology, and Evolution.’ (Longman: London, UK.)

Lowe-McConnell, R. H. (1977). ‘Ecology of Fishes in Tropical Waters.’ (Edward Arnold: London, UK.)

Lowe-McConnell, R. H. (1987). ‘Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities.’ (Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA.)

Lynch, K. (2006). Neo-liberalism and marketisation: the implications for higher education. European Educational Research Journal 5, 1–17.
Neo-liberalism and marketisation: the implications for higher education.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Macdonald, S., and Kam, J. (2011). The skewed few: people and papers of quality in management studies. Organization 18, 467–475.
The skewed few: people and papers of quality in management studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

MacRoberts, M. H., and MacRoberts, B. R. (1989). Problems of citation analysis: a critial review. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 40, 342–349.
Problems of citation analysis: a critial review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

MacRoberts, M. H., and MacRoberts, B. R. (2018). The mismeasure of science: citation analysis. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 69, 474–482.
The mismeasure of science: citation analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Martin, B. R., and Irvine, J. (1983). Assessing basic research: some partial indicators of scientific progress in radio astronomy. Research Policy 12, 61–90.
Assessing basic research: some partial indicators of scientific progress in radio astronomy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mason, J. (1992). The admission of the first women to the Royal Society of London. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 46, 279–300.
The admission of the first women to the Royal Society of London.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Miall, L. C. (1903). ‘The Natural History of Aquatic Insects.’ (Macmillan and Co.: London, UK.)

Mirnezami, S. R., Beaudry, C., and Lariviére, V. (2016). What determines researchers’ scientific impact? A case study of Quebec researchers. Science & Public Policy 43, 262–274.
What determines researchers’ scientific impact? A case study of Quebec researchers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morgan, A. H. (1930). ‘Field Book of Ponds and Streams.’ (G. P. Putman’s Sons: New York, NY, USA.)

Morrish, L., and Sauntson, H. (2016). Performance management and the stifling of academic freedom and knowledge production. Journal of Historical Sociology 29, 42–64.
Performance management and the stifling of academic freedom and knowledge production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nanda, S., Mishra, M., and Ramesh, D. B. (2018). Performance analysis and ranking of corporate medical institutions in India. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology 38, 342–348.
Performance analysis and ranking of corporate medical institutions in India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nielsen, M. W. (2017). Scientific performance assessments through a gender lens: a case study on evaluation and selection practices in academia. Science & Technology Studies 31, 2–30.
Scientific performance assessments through a gender lens: a case study on evaluation and selection practices in academia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Patrick, R. (1949). A proposed biological measure of stream conditions, based on a survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 101, 277–341.

Patrick, R. (1967). The effect of invasion rate, species pool, and size of area on the structure of the diatom community. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 58, 1335–1342.
The effect of invasion rate, species pool, and size of area on the structure of the diatom community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 5237868PubMed |

Patrick, R. (1997). The development of the science of aquatic ecosystems. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 22, 1–11.
The development of the science of aquatic ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Patrick, R., and Reimer, C. W. (1966). The diatoms of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. Number 13. In ‘Monographs of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia’. (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia: Philadelphia, PA, USA.)

Pennington, C. (2015). ‘The Historic Role of Women Scientists at BGS and a Look at What Is Happening Today.’ Open Research Archive 514086. (Natural Environment Research Council: Swindon, UK.)

Platt, J. R. (1964). Strong inference. Science 146, 347–353.
Strong inference.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17739513PubMed |

Quinn, G. P., and Keough, M. J. (2002). ‘Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

Real, L. A., and Brown, J. H. (Eds) (1991). ‘Foundations of Ecology: Classic Papers with Commentaries.’ (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA.)

Ricker, M. (2017). Letter to the editor: about the quality and impact of scientific articles. Scientometrics 111, 1851–1855.
Letter to the editor: about the quality and impact of scientific articles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28596629PubMed |

Sawer, M. (1996). ‘Removal of the Commonwealth Marriage Bar: a Documentary History’. (Centre for Research in Public Sector Management, University of Canberra: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Schreiber, M. (2018). A skeptical view on the Hirsch index and its predictive power. Physica Scripta 93, 102501.
A skeptical view on the Hirsch index and its predictive power.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shao, Z. Y., Li, Y. M., Ke, W., Guo, Y. J., Fan, F., Fen, H., Nui, Y. F., and Yang, Z. (2018). How academic librarians involve and contribute in research activities of universities? A systematic demonstration in practice through comparative studies of research productivities and research impacts. Journal of Academic Librarianship 44, 805–815.
How academic librarians involve and contribute in research activities of universities? A systematic demonstration in practice through comparative studies of research productivities and research impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Statzner, B., and Resh, V. H. (2010). Negative changes in the scientific publication process in ecology: potential causes and consequences. Freshwater Biology 55, 2639–2653.
Negative changes in the scientific publication process in ecology: potential causes and consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stiassny, M. L. J., and Kaufman, L. S. (2015). Rosemary Lowe-McConnell, obituary. Environmental Biology of Fishes 98, 1719–1722.
Rosemary Lowe-McConnell, obituary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sudgen, D. (1987). The polar and glacial world. In ‘Horizons in Physical Geography’. (Eds M. J. Clark, K. J. Gregory, and A. M. Gurnell.) pp. 214–231. (Macmillan Education UK: London, UK.)

Symonds, M. R. E., Gemmell, N. J., Braisher, T. L., Gorringe, K. L., and Elgar, M. A. (2006). Gender differences in publication output: towards an unbiased metric of research performance. PLoS One 1, e127.
Gender differences in publication output: towards an unbiased metric of research performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tabachnick, B. G., and Fidell, L. S. (2014). ‘Using Multivariate Statistics.’ (Pearson Education: Harlow, UK.)

Toulmin, S., Rieke, R., and Janik, A. (1984). ‘An Introduction to Reasoning.’ (Macmillan: New York, NY, USA.)

Underwood, A. J. (1997). ‘Experiments in Ecology: their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance.’ (Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA.)

Universities Australia (2017). ‘2016 Selected Inter-institutional Gender Equity Statistics.’ (Universities Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

van den Besselaar, P., and Sandström, U. (2016). Gender differences in research performance and its impact on careers: a longitudinal case study. Scientometrics 106, 143–162.
Gender differences in research performance and its impact on careers: a longitudinal case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26798162PubMed |

Waltman, L. (2016). A review of the literature on citation impact indicators. Journal of Informetrics 10, 365–391.
A review of the literature on citation impact indicators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ward, H. B., and Whipple, G. C. (1918). ‘Fresh-water Biology.’ (Wiley: New York, NY, USA.)

Warner, P. C., and Ewing, M. S. (2002). Wading in the water: women aquatic biologists coping with clothing, 1877–1945. Bioscience 52, 97–104.
Wading in the water: women aquatic biologists coping with clothing, 1877–1945.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wendl, M. C. (2007). H-index: however ranked, citations need context. Nature 449, 403.
H-index: however ranked, citations need context.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17898746PubMed |

Wilhite, A. W., and Fong, E. A. (2012). Coercive citation in academic publishing. Science 335, 542–543.
Coercive citation in academic publishing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22301307PubMed |