Glanders: re-emergence of an ancient zoonosis
Patricia Ellis
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
Equine Health Advisor
Asian Racing Federation
Tel: 0419 371 123
Email: pmevet@bigpond.net.au
Microbiology Australia 41(1) 41-44 https://doi.org/10.1071/MA20011
Published: 3 March 2020
Abstract
Glanders, although known to be endemic in certain regions/countries of the Old and New Worlds for centuries, had been largely overlooked as a threat to equine and human health until the disease re-emerged in the Middle East in 2004. The exponential growth in international horse movements, both legal and illegal, mainly for performance purposes, has enhanced the risk of global spread of glanders in the Middle East and elsewhere. Ever since the First World War, the glanders bacillus has been recognised as a potential biological warfare agent.
References
[1] Khan, I. et al. (2013) Glanders in animals: a review on epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and countermeasures. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 60, 204–221.| Glanders in animals: a review on epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and countermeasures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22630609PubMed |
[2] OIE (2019) Chapter 12.10 Infection with Burkholderia (Glanders). In: OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 28th edn. https://www.oie.int/index.ph p?id=169&L=0&htmfile=chapitre_glanders.htm (accessed 3 December 2019).
[3] Spickler, A.R. (2018) Glanders. http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/glanders.pdf (accessed 30 November 2019).
[4] Wernery, U. (2009) Glanders. In Infectious Diseases of the Horse (Mair, T.S. and Hutchinson, R.E., eds). pp 253-260. Equine Veterinary Journal Ltd.
[5] Van Zandt, K.E. et al. (2013) Glanders: an overview of infections in humans. Orphanet J. Rare Dis. 8, 131.
| Glanders: an overview of infections in humans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24004906PubMed |
[6] Wernery, U. et al. (2011) Natural Burkholderia mallei infection in dromedary, Bahrain. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 1277–1279.
| Natural Burkholderia mallei infection in dromedary, Bahrain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21762586PubMed |
[7] Elschner, M.C. et al. (2017) The resurrection of glanders in a new epidemiological scenario: a beneficiary of ‘global change’. Curr. Clin. Micro. Rpt 4, 54–60.
| The resurrection of glanders in a new epidemiological scenario: a beneficiary of ‘global change’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[8] Kettle, A.N. and Wernery, U. (2016) Glanders and the risk of its introduction through the international movement of horses Equine Vet. J. 48, 654–658.
| Glanders and the risk of its introduction through the international movement of horsesCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27288893PubMed |
[9] OIE (2018) Glanders and meliodosis. Chapter 3.5.11 In: OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, 8th edn. https://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/3.05.11_GLANDERS.pdf (accessed 3 December 2019).
[10] Elschner, M.C. et al. (2019) Evaluation of the comparative accuracy of the complement fixation test, Western blot and five enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for serodiagnosis of glanders. PLoS One 14, e0214963.
| Evaluation of the comparative accuracy of the complement fixation test, Western blot and five enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for serodiagnosis of glanders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30951554PubMed |
[11] Wilkinson, L. (1981) Glanders: Medicine and veterinary medicine in common pursuit of a contagious disease. Med. Hist. 25, 363–384.
| Glanders: Medicine and veterinary medicine in common pursuit of a contagious disease.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 7038356PubMed |
[12] Srinivasan, A. et al. (2001) Glanders in a military research microbiologist. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 256–258.
| Glanders in a military research microbiologist.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11474663PubMed |
[13] Wheelis, M. (1998) First shots fired in biological warfare. Nature 395, 213.
| First shots fired in biological warfare.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 9751039PubMed |
[14] Rotz, L.D. et al. (2002) Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8, 225–230.
| Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11897082PubMed |
[15] Dominguez, M. et al. (2016) Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned. Equine Vet. J. 48, 641–653.
| Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26509734PubMed |
[16] OIE (2010) Press release: Glanders poses a serious health risk to both animals and humans in the Middle-East. https://www.oie.int/en/for-the-media/press-releases/detail/article/glanders-poses-a-serious-health-risk-to-both-animals-and-humans-in-the-middle-east/ (accessed 30 November 2019).
[17] OIE (2019) Glanders in Kuwait. Immediate notification report. Report 31260. https://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Reviewreport/Review?reportid=31260 (accessed 2 December 2019).
[18] Wernery, U. (2011) Glanders. Equine Disease Quarterly 20, 3.
[19] Scholz, H.C. et al. (2014) Genotyping of Burkholderia mallei from an outbreak of glanders in Bahrain suggests multiple introduction events. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 8, e3195.
| Genotyping of Burkholderia mallei from an outbreak of glanders in Bahrain suggests multiple introduction events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25255232PubMed |
[20] Elschner, M.C. et al. (2009) Burkholderia mallei infection in a horse imported from Brazil Equine Vet. Educ. 21, 147–150.
| Burkholderia mallei infection in a horse imported from BrazilCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[21] Elschner, M.C. et al. (2016) Re-appearance of glanders in Western Europe: clinical, laboratory and pathological findings in a German horse. OIE Bulletin. 2016, 76–79.
| Re-appearance of glanders in Western Europe: clinical, laboratory and pathological findings in a German horse.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[22] Ellis, P.M. (1998) Pegasus joins the jet age Aust. Vet. J. 76, 476–477.
| Pegasus joins the jet ageCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 9700401PubMed |
[23] Yarwood, A.T. (1989) Walers: Australian Horses Abroad. p. 43. Melbourne University Press.
[24] Seddon, H.D. (1953) Glanders. In Diseases of Domestic Animals in Australia. Part 5. Volume 1. Bacterial Diseases. Department of Health, Commonwealth of Australia.
[25] Biosecurity Australia (2010) Import risk analysis report for horses from approved countries. Biosecurity Australia, Canberra.
[26] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013) Import risk analysis report for horses from approved countries: final policy review. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra.
[27] Animal Health Australia (2018) Glanders: In Response Policy Briefs (Version 3.6) Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan (AUSVETPLAN), Edition 3. pp. 36–37. National Biosecurity Committee, Canberra, ACT.
