Contaminant release from aged microplastic
Nicole Bandow A B , Verena Will A , Volker Wachtendorf A and Franz-Georg Simon A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany.
B Corresponding author. Email: nicole.bandow@bam.de
Environmental Chemistry 14(6) 394-405 https://doi.org/10.1071/EN17064
Submitted: 19 September 2016 Accepted: 6 July 2017 Published: 28 November 2017
Environmental context. Increasing global plastic production adds plastic debris to the environment. We show that potentially harmful additives present in plastic particles are released to water at an increased rate when material properties change by aging due to exposure to high temperature and especially to UV radiation. For risk assessment of such plastic additives, more information on their degradation products and their toxicity is needed.
Abstract. Recycled plastic granules of high-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene the size of microplastics were exposed to artificial aging conditions (2000 h; photooxidative and thermo-oxidative) to simulate their fate outdoors. Their potential to leach into water during the aging process was investigated using column percolation tests. Aging-related changes on the surface of the material were characterised by IR measurements indicating oxidation reactions with the formation of new adsorption bands (C=O, C–O and OH), especially in the case of photooxidative aging. These findings were confirmed by the identification of leachable organic compounds. Leaching of total organic carbon, Cl, Ca, Cu and Zn is clearly affected by changes due to aging, and their release is increased after photooxidative aging. In general, exposure to photooxidative conditions shows a greater influence on aging and thus on leaching and seems to be the more important mechanism for the aging of microplastic in the environment. Comparison with the total content of inorganic species revealed that, for most elements, less than 3% of the total content is released after 2000 h of photooxidative aging.
Additional keywords: column percolation tests, heavy metals, photo-oxidation, thermo-oxidation.
References
[1] PlasticsEurope. Plastics – the facts 2015: an analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data 2015 (Plastics Europe: Brussels, Belgium). Available at http://www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20151216062602-plastics_the_facts_2015_final_30pages_14122015.pdf [verified 13 July 2016].[2] J. R. Jambeck, R. Geyer, C. Wilcox, T. R. Siegler, M. Perryman, A. Andrady, R. Narayan, K. L. Law, Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 2015, 347, 768.
| Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXitlKktrs%3D&md5=25f795162a63841b6690e9ac6f45292bCAS |
[3] M. Cole, P. Lindeque, C. Halsband, T. S. Galloway, Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62, 2588.
| Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsV2gsrfM&md5=3526c173fe35b067712335ec3d0e84b4CAS |
[4] D. Eerkes-Medrano, R. C. Thompson, D. C. Aldridge, Microplastics in freshwater systems: a review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs. Water Res. 2015, 75, 63.
| Microplastics in freshwater systems: a review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXjtFeqsbg%3D&md5=e2d87f41164138a4d3e70b35555b2db8CAS |
[5] M. Wagner, C. Scherer, D. Alvarez-Muñoz, N. Brennholt, X. Bourrain, S. Buchinger, E. Fries, C. Grosbois, J. Klasmeier, T. Marti, S. Rodriguez-Mozaz, R. Urbatzka, A. D. Vethaak, M. Winther-Nielsen, G. Reifferscheid, Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2014, 26, 12.
| Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[6] J. F. Rabek, Role of water in the degradation processes, in Photodegradation of Polymers, Physical Characteristics and Applications 1996, pp. 138–40 (Springer: Berlin, Germany).
[7] A. ter Halle, L. Ladirat, X. Gendre, D. Goudouneche, C. Pusineri, C. Routaboul, C. Tenailleau, B. Duployer, E. Perez, Understanding the fragmentation pattern of marine plastic debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 5668.
| Understanding the fragmentation pattern of marine plastic debris.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XntVOgsLs%3D&md5=82c000c95912c883fc094e0fe0fa8764CAS |
[8] S. Oberbeckmann, M. G. J. Löder, M. Labrenz, Marine microplastic-associated biofilms – a review. Environ. Chem. 2015, 12, 551.
| Marine microplastic-associated biofilms – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhsFKiu7jJ&md5=438ba18ae038745ea5d9448e41d8cd62CAS |
[9] L. M. Rios, C. Moore, P. R. Jones, Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54, 1230.
| Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXotlKju7w%3D&md5=33c3b45c94dcad00af36112546618425CAS |
[10] D. Brennecke, B. Duarte, F. Paiva, I. Caçador, J. Canning-Clode, Microplastics as vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2016, 178, 189.
| Microplastics as vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28Xosl2rtw%3D%3D&md5=0fcfc860fd9381881130e164ab64e9a9CAS |
[11] T. Hüffer, T. Hofmann, Sorption of non-polar organic compounds by micro-sized plastic particles in aqueous solution. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 214, 194.
| Sorption of non-polar organic compounds by micro-sized plastic particles in aqueous solution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[12] C. M. Rochman, E. Hoh, B. T. Hentschel, S. Kaye, Long-term field measurement of sorption of organic contaminants to five types of plastic pellets: implications for plastic marine debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 1646.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvFWgt77N&md5=81716b69189caf4510d68b84c86f63f1CAS |
[13] L. Liu, R. Fokkink, A. A. Koelmans, Sorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to polystyrene nanoplastic. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016, 35, 1650.
| Sorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to polystyrene nanoplastic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XktFKms70%3D&md5=21e1f6644f95f4e8ad586020a3a7b701CAS |
[14] L. M. Ziccardi, A. Edgington, K. Hentz, K. J. Kulacki, S. Kane Driscoll, Microplastics as vectors for bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in the marine environment: a state-of-the-science review. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016, 35, 1667.
| Microplastics as vectors for bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in the marine environment: a state-of-the-science review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XotV2ktbk%3D&md5=dda1851a7cf37fcd2948c0d3f5624bd6CAS |
[15] A. Bakir, S. J. Rowland, R. C. Thompson, Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 16.
| Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhvFyktrrI&md5=689105909f53fc3b3d339172937dd62aCAS |
[16] B. Beckingham, U. Ghosh, Differential bioavailability of polychlorinated biphenyls associated with environmental particles: microplastic in comparison to wood, coal and biochar. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 150.
| Differential bioavailability of polychlorinated biphenyls associated with environmental particles: microplastic in comparison to wood, coal and biochar.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhsFamurzM&md5=358be947a5ea28d6e91593ec90704d77CAS |
[17] R. E. Engler, The complex interaction between marine debris and toxic chemicals in the ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 12302.
| The complex interaction between marine debris and toxic chemicals in the ocean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsFClsLfN&md5=7b5d05a0de7d003247a1ae6c0eb090d5CAS |
[18] J.-J. Ortega-Calvo, J. Harmsen, J. R. Parsons, K. T. Semple, M. D. Aitken, C. Ajao, C. Eadsforth, M. Galay-Burgos, R. Naidu, R. Oliver, W. J. G. M. Peijnenburg, J. Römbke, G. Streck, B. Versonnen, From bioavailability science to regulation of organic chemicals. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 10255.
| From bioavailability science to regulation of organic chemicals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXht1Kgs7fF&md5=271d85fad67546f155124b2bdbf64780CAS |
[19] J. A. Ivar do Sul, M. F. Costa, M. Barletta, F. J. Cysneiros, Pelagic microplastics around an archipelago of the Equatorial Atlantic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 75, 305.
| Pelagic microplastics around an archipelago of the Equatorial Atlantic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXht1yjtLjI&md5=9e6b3231325c922c6b26cc2cd28cfcbbCAS |
[20] DIN EN ISO 4892–3. Plastics – Methods of Exposure to Laboratory Light Sources – Part 3: Fluorescent UV Lamps (ISO 4892–3:2013) 2014–02 2014. (German Institute for Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[21] G. Wypych, Handbook of Material Weathering (5th Edn) 2013 (Elsevier: Oxford, UK).
[22] P. Bijl, A. Heikkilä, S. Syrjälä, A. Aarva, A. Poikonen, Modelling of sample surface temperature in an outdoor weathering test. Polym. Test. 2011, 30, 485.
| Modelling of sample surface temperature in an outdoor weathering test.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXntFKgur8%3D&md5=31202012798a7bfa4aa23732d4a09fe2CAS |
[23] U. Kalbe, W. Berger, J. Eckardt, F. G. Simon, Evaluation of leaching and extraction procedures for soil and waste. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 1027.
| Evaluation of leaching and extraction procedures for soil and waste.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjvFeitbw%3D&md5=d3c2c7caef836a7cf6763f494ed951eeCAS |
[24] P. Grathwohl, B. Susset, Comparison of percolation to batch and sequential leaching tests: theory and data. Waste Manag. 2009, 29, 2681.
| Comparison of percolation to batch and sequential leaching tests: theory and data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXps1Clu78%3D&md5=736f066ce3b6341980284ba680374fb5CAS |
[25] DIN 19528. Leaching of Solid Materials – Percolation Method for the Joint Examination of the Leaching Behaviour of Organic and Inorganic Substances for Materials with a Particle Size up to 32 mm – Basic Characterization Using a Comprehensive Column Test and Compliance Test Using a Quick Column Test 2009–01 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[26] DIN 18124. Soil Investigation and Testing – Determination of Density of Solid Particles – Capillary Pycnometer, Wide-Mouth Pycnometer, Gas Pycnometer 2011–04 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[27] DIN 18121–1. Soil Investigation and Testing – Water Content – Part 1: Determination by Drying in Oven 1998–04 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[28] DIN EN 27888. Water Quality; Determination of Electrical Conductivity 1993–11 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[29] DIN ISO 10390. Soil Quality – Determination of pH (ISO 10390:2005) 2005–12 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[30] DIN EN ISO 17993. Water Quality – Determination of 15 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Water by HPLC with Fluorescence Detection After Liquid–Liquid Extraction 2004–03 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[31] DIN EN 1484. Water Analysis – Guidelines for the Determination of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) 1997–08 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[32] DIN EN ISO 10304–1. Water Quality – Determination of Dissolved Fluoride, Chloride, Nitrite, Orthophosphate, Bromide, Nitrate and Sulfate Ions, Using Liquid Chromatography of Ions – Part 1: Method for Water with Low Contamination 1995–04 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[33] DIN EN ISO 11885. Water Quality – Determination of Selected Elements by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) 2009–09 (German Institute of Standardization: Berlin, Germany).
[34] H. C. Beachell, L. H. Smiley, Oxidative degradation of polystyrene. J. Polym. Sci. A1 1967, 5, 1635.
| Oxidative degradation of polystyrene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF2sXktleisL8%3D&md5=92784cf9ce9b4daf2e3376acefa60357CAS |
[35] B. G. Achhammer, M. J. Reiney, F. W. Reinhart, Study of degradation of polystyrene, using infrared spectrophotometry. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 1951, 47, 116.
| Study of degradation of polystyrene, using infrared spectrophotometry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaG38XhvFylsw%3D%3D&md5=d22bc98ca27edd69e690299a3e064891CAS |
[36] J. V. Gulmine, P. R. Janissek, H. M. Heise, L. Akcelrud, Degradation profile of polyethylene after artificial accelerated weathering. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2003, 79, 385.
| Degradation profile of polyethylene after artificial accelerated weathering.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhvFymsb8%3D&md5=e971eae542c5d7bf52dbf21ea99601b1CAS |
[37] U. Schulz, Effects of weathering stress, in Accelerated Testing: Nature and Artificial Weathering in the Coatings Industry 2009, pp. 22–63 (Vincentz Network: Hannover, Germany).
[38] W. F. Carroll, R. W. Johnson, S. S. Moor, R. A. Moore, Additives, in Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook: Processing, Materials and Applications (Ed.M. Kutz) 2017, pp. 80–82 (Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands).
[39] M. Biron, Resistance to chemicals, light and UV, in Material Selection for Thermoplastic Parts 2016, pp. 537–602 (William Andrew Publishing: Oxford, UK).
[40] C. A. D’Aquino, W. Balmant, R. L. L. Ribeiro, M. Munaro, J. V. C. Vargas, S. C. Amico, A simplified mathematical model to predict PVC photodegradation in photobioreactors. Polym. Test. 2012, 31, 638.
| A simplified mathematical model to predict PVC photodegradation in photobioreactors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XotFKksb0%3D&md5=2f50827d8a3bc39a17fd994fe8eff074CAS |
[41] M. M. Shapi, A. Hesso, Thermal decomposition of polystyrene: volatile compounds from large-scale pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1990, 18, 143.
| Thermal decomposition of polystyrene: volatile compounds from large-scale pyrolysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXns1yr&md5=47c998dcf1600bf7c2faedc87b004173CAS |
[42] S. S. Hill, B. R. Shaw, A. H. B. Wu, Plasticizers, antioxidants, and other contaminants found in air delivered by PVC tubing used in respiratory therapy. Biomed. Chromatogr. 2003, 17, 250.
| Plasticizers, antioxidants, and other contaminants found in air delivered by PVC tubing used in respiratory therapy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXltlSltL8%3D&md5=bbabb4aeffa71eeb50c7fbff10b9e6e5CAS |
[43] M. Hakkarainen, A.-C. Albertsson, Environmental degradation of polyethylene, in Long-Term Properties of Polyolefins (Ed. A. C. Albertsson) 2004, pp. 177–200 (Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin, Heidelberg).
[44] F.-S. Liu, H.-B. Hu, Y. Xu, L.-H. Guo, S.-B. Zai, K.-M. Song, H.-Y. Gao, L. Zhang, F.-M. Zhu, Q. Wu, Thermostable α-diimine nickel(II) catalyst for ethylene polymerization: effects of the substituted backbone structure on catalytic properties and branching structure of polyethylene. Macromolecules 2009, 42, 7789.
| Thermostable α-diimine nickel(II) catalyst for ethylene polymerization: effects of the substituted backbone structure on catalytic properties and branching structure of polyethylene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtV2ns7bE&md5=422ee99760f718d67c0dc97402608b60CAS |
[45] G. Wypych, Photophysics, in Handbook of Material Weathering (5th Edn) 2013, pp. 1–25 (Elsevier: Oxford, UK).
[46] M. C. Celina, Review of polymer oxidation and its relationship with materials performance and lifetime prediction. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2013, 98, 2419.
| Review of polymer oxidation and its relationship with materials performance and lifetime prediction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtFChtLvP&md5=ea6b4719467d603eff857f2801d7496fCAS |
[47] B. Rånby, Basic reactions in the photodegradation of some important polymers. J. Macromol. Sci. Part A Pure Appl. Chem. 1993, 30, 583.
| Basic reactions in the photodegradation of some important polymers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[48] J. L. Bolland, G. Gee, Kinetic studies in the chemistry of rubber and related materials. II. The kinetics of oxidation of unconjugated olefins. Trans. Faraday Soc. 1946, 42, 236.
| Kinetic studies in the chemistry of rubber and related materials. II. The kinetics of oxidation of unconjugated olefins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaH2sXpt1ym&md5=04dcd87d8dba726a390dd2a82dbeefd6CAS |
[49] J. L. Bolland, Kinetic studies in the chemistry of rubber and related materials. I. The thermal oxidation of ethyl linoleate, in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 1946, 186, 218
[50] A. Bhattacharya, Radiation and industrial polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2000, 25, 371.
| Radiation and industrial polymers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXltlShurk%3D&md5=ef1d3fa608455c86a4e5664d3ad5ec1aCAS |
[51] B. Fayolle, X. Colin, L. Audouin, J. Verdu, Mechanism of degradation induced embrittlement in polyethylene. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2007, 92, 231.
| Mechanism of degradation induced embrittlement in polyethylene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhsFKrsrw%3D&md5=13dd9acae333209e712b812632c4c5bcCAS |
[52] Ellen MacArthur Foundation, World Economic Forum, McKinsey & Company, The new plastics economy: rethinking the future of plastics 2016. Available at http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics (verified 1 March 2017).
