Soil carbon dynamics following the transition of permanent pasture to cereal cropping: influence of initial soil fertility, lime application and nutrient addition
Elizabeth C. Coonan A B , John A. Kirkegaard A , Clive A. Kirkby A , Craig L. Strong B , Martin R. Amidy B and Alan E. Richardson
A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A CSIRO Agriculture & Food, PO Box 1700 Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
B Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: alan.richardson@csiro.au
Crop and Pasture Science 71(1) 23-35 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP19197
Submitted: 10 May 2019 Accepted: 3 September 2019 Published: 17 January 2020
Abstract
Soil organic matter (SOM) in agricultural soils is generally lower in cultivated and intensively managed cropping soils than in pasture soils. Cultivation during the transition from pasture to crop leads to a loss of SOM, which may affect soil functionality and subsequent agricultural productivity. However, it is unclear how management practices influence SOM dynamics following this transition. We investigated the impact of initial soil fertility and application of lime and nutrients (nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S)) on changes in soil carbon (C) during the transition from a permanent pasture to a crop. The pasture was managed over 20 years with fertiliser to generate soils with initial high and low fertility (referred to as P2 and P0, respectively), based on soil C, N, P and S concentrations. Prior to sowing, pasture residue was incorporated with three treatments applied: control, lime, and lime + nutrient. Two successive crops of triticale (Triticale (× Triticosecale)) were then grown. The P0 and P2 soils were again cultivated in March 2018 with incorporation of the triticale stubble residue (9 Mg ha–1) in each of the three soil treatments. After the two successive cereal crops, higher whole-soil C stocks were retained in the P2 than the P0 soils (difference of 2.1 Mg C ha–1 compared with an initial difference in stocks of 2.4 Mg C ha–1), with smaller loss of whole-soil C in P2 soils receiving the lime and lime + nutrient treatments than in the P2 control (average 10.3%, 10.0% and 20.2% loss of total C, respectively, relative to initial levels of soil C). Loss of C from the more active >0.4-mm fraction as a proportion of total C loss was higher in the first year with incorporation of legume-based pasture residue than in the second year with incorporation of C-rich, nutrient-poor crop residue (56% and 18% of the loss of C from the whole soil was from the >0.4-mm fraction in the first and second year, respectively). In P2 soil, loss of C was smaller in the more stable <0.4-mm fraction in the lime and lime + nutrient treatments than in the control (average loss of 9.6%, 11.2% and 17.6%, respectively). By contrast, in the low-fertility (P0) soil, loss of C was greater in the <0.4-mm fraction in the lime treatment than in the control (12.3% and 3.4% loss, respectively) unless supplementary nutrients were added at the time of cultivation (7.0% loss). Narrowing of nutrient ratios (C : N and C : S) in the P0 whole soil over time suggested that the loss of soil C was associated with increased microbial processing of C in the coarse-fraction soil. Taken together, the results demonstrate that loss of C from the pasture soils after cultivation was lower for soil with initially higher soil fertility when lime was applied, and that for soils with lower initial fertility, application of nutrients in addition to those for crop growth reduced C mineralisation induced by lime application.
Additional keywords: carbon dynamics, land-use change, nutrient stoichiometry, tillage.
References
Adams JL, Tipping E, Thacker SA, Quinton JN (2018) An investigation of the distribution of phosphorus between free and mineral associated soil organic matter, using density fractionation. Plant and Soil 427, 139–148.| An investigation of the distribution of phosphorus between free and mineral associated soil organic matter, using density fractionation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson T-H, Domsch KH (1989) Ratios of microbial biomass carbon to total organic carbon in arable soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 21, 471–479.
| Ratios of microbial biomass carbon to total organic carbon in arable soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Angus JF, Peoples MB (2012) Nitrogen from Australian dryland pastures. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 746–758.
| Nitrogen from Australian dryland pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Armstrong R, Perris R, Munn M, Dunsford K, Robertson F, Hollaway G, O’Leary G (2019) Effects of long-term rotation and tillage practice on grain yield and protein of wheat and soil fertility on a Vertosol in a medium-rainfall temperate environment. Crop & Pasture Science 70, 1–15.
| Effects of long-term rotation and tillage practice on grain yield and protein of wheat and soil fertility on a Vertosol in a medium-rainfall temperate environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Balesdent J, Chenu C, Balabane M (2000) Relationship of soil organic matter dynamics to physical protection and tillage. Soil & Tillage Research 53, 215–230.
| Relationship of soil organic matter dynamics to physical protection and tillage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell LW, Moore AD, Kirkegaard JA (2014) Evolution in crop–livestock integration systems that improve farm productivity and environmental performance in Australia. European Journal of Agronomy 57, 10–20.
| Evolution in crop–livestock integration systems that improve farm productivity and environmental performance in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bolker BM, Brooks ME, Clark CJ, Geange SW, Poulsen JR, Stevens MHH, White J-SS (2009) Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, 127–135.
| Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Briedis C, de Moraes Sá JC, Caires EF, Navarro JdF, Inagaki TM, Boer A, Neto CQ, Ferreira AdO, Canalli LB, dos Santos JB (2012) Soil organic matter pools and carbon-protection mechanisms in aggregate classes influenced by surface liming in a no-till system. Geoderma 170, 80–88.
| Soil organic matter pools and carbon-protection mechanisms in aggregate classes influenced by surface liming in a no-till system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bureau of Meteorology (2019) Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: daily weather observations. Bureau of Meteorology, Canberra, ACT. Available at: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/dwo/IDCJDW2801.latest.shtml
Chan KY, Conyers MK, Li GD, Helyar KR, Poile G, Oates A, Barchia IM (2011) Soil carbon dynamics under different cropping and pasture management in temperate Australia: results of three long-term experiments. Soil Research 49, 320–328.
| Soil carbon dynamics under different cropping and pasture management in temperate Australia: results of three long-term experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers M, Newton P, Condon J, Poile G, Mele P, Ash G (2012) Three long-term trials end with a quasi-equilibrium between soil C, N, and pH: an implication for C sequestration. Soil Research 50, 527–535.
| Three long-term trials end with a quasi-equilibrium between soil C, N, and pH: an implication for C sequestration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coonan EC, Kirkby CA, Kirkegaard JA, Amidy MR, Strong CL, Richardson AE (2019a) Lime and nutrient addition affects the dynamics and fractions of soil carbon in a short-term incubation study with 13C-labeled wheat straw. Soil Science 184, 43–51.
| Lime and nutrient addition affects the dynamics and fractions of soil carbon in a short-term incubation study with 13C-labeled wheat straw.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coonan EC, Richardson AE, Kirkby CA, Kirkegaard JA, Amidy MR, Simpson RJ, Strong CL (2019b) Soil carbon sequestration to depth in response to long-term phosphorus fertilization of grazed pasture. Geoderma 338, 226–235.
| Soil carbon sequestration to depth in response to long-term phosphorus fertilization of grazed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coonan EC, Richardson AE, Kirkby CA, Macdonald LM, Amidy MR, Strong CL, Kirkegaard JA (2020) Carbon stability in a texture contrast soil in response to long-term phosphorus fertilisation of grazed pasture. Soil Research 58, 21–34.
| Carbon stability in a texture contrast soil in response to long-term phosphorus fertilisation of grazed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coventry D (1992) Acidification problems of duplex soils used for crop–pasture rotations. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 32, 901–914.
| Acidification problems of duplex soils used for crop–pasture rotations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Creamer CA, Jones DL, Baldock JA, Farrell M (2014) Stoichiometric controls upon low molecular weight carbon decomposition. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 79, 50–56.
| Stoichiometric controls upon low molecular weight carbon decomposition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Creamer CA, Jones DL, Baldock JA, Rui Y, Murphy DV, Hoyle FC, Farrell M (2016) Is the fate of glucose-derived carbon more strongly driven by nutrient availability, soil texture, or microbial biomass size? Soil Biology & Biochemistry 103, 201–212.
| Is the fate of glucose-derived carbon more strongly driven by nutrient availability, soil texture, or microbial biomass size?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crow SE, Swanston CW, Lajtha K, Brooks JR, Keirstead H (2007) Density fractionation of forest soils: methodological questions and interpretation of incubation results and turnover time in an ecosystem context. Biogeochemistry 85, 69–90.
| Density fractionation of forest soils: methodological questions and interpretation of incubation results and turnover time in an ecosystem context.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Davidson EA, Ackerman IL (1993) Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20, 161–193.
| Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Sant-Anna SAC, Jantalia CP, Sá JM, Vilela L, Marchão RL, Alves BJR, Urquiaga S, Boddey RM (2017) Changes in soil organic carbon during 22 years of pastures, cropping or integrated crop/livestock systems in the Brazilian Cerrado. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 108, 101–120.
| Changes in soil organic carbon during 22 years of pastures, cropping or integrated crop/livestock systems in the Brazilian Cerrado.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dimassi B, Mary B, Fontaine S, Perveen N, Revaillot S, Cohan J-P (2014) Effect of nutrients availability and long-term tillage on priming effect and soil C mineralization. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 78, 332–339.
| Effect of nutrients availability and long-term tillage on priming effect and soil C mineralization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Donald C, Williams C (1954) Fertility and productivity of a podzolic soil as influenced by subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) and superphosphate. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 5, 664–687.
| Fertility and productivity of a podzolic soil as influenced by subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) and superphosphate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ellert B, Bettany J (1995) Calculation of organic matter and nutrients stored in soils under contrasting management regimes. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 75, 529–538.
| Calculation of organic matter and nutrients stored in soils under contrasting management regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fang Y, Nazaries L, Singh B, Singh BP (2018) Microbial mechanisms of carbon priming effects revealed during the interaction of crop residue and nutrient inputs in contrasting soils. Global Change Biology 24, 2775–2790.
| Microbial mechanisms of carbon priming effects revealed during the interaction of crop residue and nutrient inputs in contrasting soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29603502PubMed |
Fontaine S, Bardoux G, Abbadie L, Mariotti A (2004) Carbon input to soil may decrease soil carbon content. Ecology Letters 7, 314–320.
| Carbon input to soil may decrease soil carbon content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fontaine S, Henault C, Aamor A, Bdioui N, Bloor JMG, Maire V, Mary B, Revaillot S, Maron PA (2011) Fungi mediate long term sequestration of carbon and nitrogen in soil through their priming effect. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 43, 86–96.
| Fungi mediate long term sequestration of carbon and nitrogen in soil through their priming effect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Graham MH, Haynes RJ, Meyer JH (2002) Soil organic matter content and quality: effects of fertilizer applications, burning and trash retention on a long-term sugarcane experiment in South Africa. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 34, 93–102.
| Soil organic matter content and quality: effects of fertilizer applications, burning and trash retention on a long-term sugarcane experiment in South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grandy AS, Robertson GP (2006a) Aggregation and organic matter protection following tillage of a previously uncultivated soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 70, 1398–1406.
| Aggregation and organic matter protection following tillage of a previously uncultivated soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grandy AS, Robertson GP (2006b) Initial cultivation of a temperate-region soil immediately accelerates aggregate turnover and CO2 and N2O fluxes. Global Change Biology 12, 1507–1520.
| Initial cultivation of a temperate-region soil immediately accelerates aggregate turnover and CO2 and N2O fluxes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grover S, Butterly C, Wang X, Tang C (2017) The short-term effects of liming on organic carbon mineralisation in two acidic soils as affected by different rates and application depths of lime. Biology and Fertility of Soils 53, 431–443.
| The short-term effects of liming on organic carbon mineralisation in two acidic soils as affected by different rates and application depths of lime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guo LB, Gifford RM (2002) Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Global Change Biology 8, 345–360.
| Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hati KM, Swarup A, Mishra B, Manna MC, Wanjari RH, Mandal KG, Misra AK (2008) Impact of long-term application of fertilizer, manure and lime under intensive cropping on physical properties and organic carbon content of an Alfisol. Geoderma 148, 173–179.
| Impact of long-term application of fertilizer, manure and lime under intensive cropping on physical properties and organic carbon content of an Alfisol.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Helyar KR, Cullis BR, Furniss K, Kohn GD, Taylor AC (1997) Changes in the acidity and fertility of a red earth soil under wheat–annual pasture rotations. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, 561–586.
| Changes in the acidity and fertility of a red earth soil under wheat–annual pasture rotations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Isbell RF (1996) ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Kallenbach CM, Frey SD, Grandy AS (2016) Direct evidence for microbial-derived soil organic matter formation and its ecophysiological controls. Nature Communications 7, 13630
| Direct evidence for microbial-derived soil organic matter formation and its ecophysiological controls.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27892466PubMed |
Keating BA, Carberry PS (2010) Emerging opportunities and challenges for Australian broadacre agriculture. Crop & Pasture Science 61, 269–278.
| Emerging opportunities and challenges for Australian broadacre agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby C, Kirkegaard J, Richardson A, Wade L, Blanchard C, Batten G (2011) Stable soil organic matter: A comparison of C : N : P : S ratios in Australian and other world soils. Geoderma 163, 197–208.
| Stable soil organic matter: A comparison of C : N : P : S ratios in Australian and other world soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby C, Richardson A, Wade L, Batten G, Blanchard C, Kirkegaard J (2013) Carbon–nutrient stoichiometry to increase soil carbon sequestration. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 60, 77–86.
| Carbon–nutrient stoichiometry to increase soil carbon sequestration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby C, Richardson A, Wade L, Passioura J, Batten G, Blanchard C, Kirkegaard J (2014) Nutrient availability limits carbon sequestration in arable soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 68, 402–409.
| Nutrient availability limits carbon sequestration in arable soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby C, Richardson A, Wade L, Conyers M, Kirkegaard J (2016a) Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil. PLoS One 11, e0153698
| Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27144282PubMed |
Kirkby CA, Richardson AE, Wade LJ, Batten GD, Blanchard CL, Mclaren G, Zwart AB, Kirkegaard JA (2016b) Accurate measurement of resistant soil organic matter and its stoichiometry. European Journal of Soil Science 67, 695–705.
| Accurate measurement of resistant soil organic matter and its stoichiometry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, Conyers MK, Hunt JR, Kirkby CA, Watt M, Rebetzke GJ (2014) Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 187, 133–145.
| Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Luo Z, Wang E, Sun OJ (2010) Soil carbon change and its responses to agricultural practices in Australian agro-ecosystems: a review and synthesis. Geoderma 155, 211–223.
| Soil carbon change and its responses to agricultural practices in Australian agro-ecosystems: a review and synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Magid J, Kjærgaard C (2001) Recovering decomposing plant residues from the particulate soil organic matter fraction: size versus density separation. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33, 252–257.
| Recovering decomposing plant residues from the particulate soil organic matter fraction: size versus density separation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Makarov MI, Haumaier L, Zech W, Malysheva TI (2004) Organic phosphorus compounds in particle-size fractions of mountain soils in the northwestern Caucasus. Geoderma 118, 101–114.
| Organic phosphorus compounds in particle-size fractions of mountain soils in the northwestern Caucasus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mann L (1986) Changes in soil carbon storage after cultivation. Soil Science 142, 279–288.
| Changes in soil carbon storage after cultivation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLaren TI, Simpson RJ, McLaughlin MJ, Smernik RJ, McBeath TM, Guppy CN, Richardson AE (2015) An assessment of various measures of soil phosphorus and the net accumulation of phosphorus in fertilized soils under pasture. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 178, 543–554.
| An assessment of various measures of soil phosphorus and the net accumulation of phosphorus in fertilized soils under pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy BW (2015) Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Research 53, 605–635.
| Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nichols PGH, Revell CK, Humphries AW, Howie JH, Hall EJ, Sandral GA, Ghamkhar K, Harris CA (2012) Temperate pasture legumes in Australia—their history, current use, and future prospects. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 691–725.
| Temperate pasture legumes in Australia—their history, current use, and future prospects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nie Z, McLean T, Clough A, Tocker J, Christy B, Harris R, Riffkin P, Clark S, McCaskill M (2016) Benefits, challenges and opportunities of integrated crop–livestock systems and their potential application in the high rainfall zone of southern Australia: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 235, 17–31.
| Benefits, challenges and opportunities of integrated crop–livestock systems and their potential application in the high rainfall zone of southern Australia: A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orgill S, Condon J, Kirkby C, Orchard B, Conyers M, Greene R, Murphy B (2017) Soil with high organic carbon concentration continues to sequester carbon with increasing carbon inputs. Geoderma 285, 151–163.
| Soil with high organic carbon concentration continues to sequester carbon with increasing carbon inputs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paradelo R, Virto I, Chenu C (2015) Net effect of liming on soil organic carbon stocks: a review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 202, 98–107.
| Net effect of liming on soil organic carbon stocks: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Post WM, Kwon KC (2000) Soil carbon sequestration and land‐use change: processes and potential. Global Change Biology 6, 317–327.
| Soil carbon sequestration and land‐use change: processes and potential.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Richardson AE, Kirkby CA, Banerjee S, Kirkegaard JA (2014) The inorganic nutrient cost of building soil carbon. Carbon Management 5, 265–268.
| The inorganic nutrient cost of building soil carbon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rousk J, Bååth E, Brookes PC, Lauber CL, Lozupone C, Caporaso JG, Knight R, Fierer N (2010) Soil bacterial and fungal communities across a pH gradient in an arable soil. The ISME Journal 4, 1340–1351.
| Soil bacterial and fungal communities across a pH gradient in an arable soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20445636PubMed |
Sarker JR, Singh BP, Dougherty WJ, Fang Y, Badgery W, Hoyle FC, Dalal RC, Cowie AL (2018) Impact of agricultural management practices on the nutrient supply potential of soil organic matter under long-term farming systems. Soil & Tillage Research 175, 71–81.
| Impact of agricultural management practices on the nutrient supply potential of soil organic matter under long-term farming systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schipper LA, Mudge PL, Kirschbaum MUF, Hedley CB, Golubiewski NE, Smaill SJ, Kelliher FM (2017) A review of soil carbon change in New Zealand’s grazed grasslands. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 60, 93–118.
| A review of soil carbon change in New Zealand’s grazed grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schulten H-R, Schnitzer M (1990) Aliphatics in soil organic matter in fine-clay fractions. Soil Science Society of America Journal 54, 98–105.
| Aliphatics in soil organic matter in fine-clay fractions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scott BJ, Ridley AM, Conyers MK (2000) Management of soil acidity in long-term pastures of south-eastern Australia: A review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 1173–1198.
| Management of soil acidity in long-term pastures of south-eastern Australia: A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simpson RJ, Stefanski A, Marshall DJ, Moore AD, Richardson AE (2015) Management of soil phosphorus fertility determines the phosphorus budget of a temperate grazing system and is the key to improving phosphorus efficiency. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 212, 263–277.
| Management of soil phosphorus fertility determines the phosphorus budget of a temperate grazing system and is the key to improving phosphorus efficiency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Six J, Elliott E, Paustian K, Doran J (1998) Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation in cultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 62, 1367–1377.
| Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation in cultivated and native grassland soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Six J, Frey S, Thiet R, Batten K (2006) Bacterial and fungal contributions to carbon sequestration in agroecosystems. Soil Science Society of America Journal 70, 555–569.
| Bacterial and fungal contributions to carbon sequestration in agroecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Soil Survey Staff (1999) ‘Soil Taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys.’ Agriculture Handbook No. 436. (Natural Resources Conservation Service: Washington, DC)
Stern H, De Hoedt G, Ernst J (2000) Objective classification of Australian climates. Australian Meteorological Magazine 49, 87–96.
Strickland MS, Rousk J (2010) Considering fungal : bacterial dominance in soils—methods, controls, and ecosystem implications. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 42, 1385–1395.
| Considering fungal : bacterial dominance in soils—methods, controls, and ecosystem implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
USEPA (1998) Method 3051A, Microwave assisted acid digest of sediments, sludges, soils and oils. In ‘USEPA methods for evaluating solid waste, physical/chemical methods (SW-846)’. (US Environmental Protection Agency: Boston, MA, USA)
Vance ED, Brookes PC, Jenkinson DS (1987) An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 19, 703–707.
| An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wakelin SA, Colloff MJ, Harvey PR, Marschner P, Gregg AL, Rogers SL (2007) The effects of stubble retention and nitrogen application on soil microbial community structure and functional gene abundance under irrigated maize. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 59, 661–670.
| The effects of stubble retention and nitrogen application on soil microbial community structure and functional gene abundance under irrigated maize.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17116166PubMed |
Wakelin SA, Macdonald LM, Rogers SL, Gregg AL, Bolger TP, Baldock JA (2008) Habitat selective factors influencing the structural composition and functional capacity of microbial communities in agricultural soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 40, 803–813.
| Habitat selective factors influencing the structural composition and functional capacity of microbial communities in agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Waring BG, Averill C, Hawkes CV (2013) Differences in fungal and bacterial physiology alter soil carbon and nitrogen cycling: insights from meta-analysis and theoretical models. Ecology Letters 16, 887–894.
| Differences in fungal and bacterial physiology alter soil carbon and nitrogen cycling: insights from meta-analysis and theoretical models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23692657PubMed |
Williams C, Donald C (1957) Changes in organic matter and pH in a podzolic soil as influenced by subterranean clover and superphosphate. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 8, 179–189.
| Changes in organic matter and pH in a podzolic soil as influenced by subterranean clover and superphosphate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xiao D, Huang Y, Feng S, Ge Y, Zhang W, He X, Wang K (2018) Soil organic carbon mineralization with fresh organic substrate and inorganic carbon additions in a red soil is controlled by fungal diversity along a pH gradient. Geoderma 321, 79–89.
| Soil organic carbon mineralization with fresh organic substrate and inorganic carbon additions in a red soil is controlled by fungal diversity along a pH gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
