Strategic tillage of a long-term, no-till soil has little impact on soil characteristics or crop growth over five years
John Kirkegaard
A C , Clive Kirkby A , Albert Oates B , Vince van der Rijt B , Graeme Poile B and Mark Conyers B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A CSIRO Agriculture and Food, PO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
B NSW Department of Primary Industries, Agricultural Institute, Pine Gully Road, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: john.kirkegaard@csiro.au
Crop and Pasture Science 71(12) 945-958 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP20334
Submitted: 31 August 2020 Accepted: 1 November 2020 Published: 3 December 2020
Journal compilation © CSIRO 2020 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Strategic tillage describes the occasional use of tillage in an otherwise no-till system. The practice can provide a pragmatic solution to emerging agronomic issues in no-till systems but raises concerns about prolonged or irreversible soil damage. We investigated the impact of a single tillage event at a long-term no-till experiment under treatments with retained or annually autumn-burned crop residues. One half of each residue-treatment plot received a single pass of a rotary hoe (ST) 4 weeks before sowing in 2011, the first year of the experiment; the other half of each plot remained unchanged (NT). Soil physical, chemical and biological fertility in the surface layers (0–20 cm), as well as crop growth and yield were monitored for 5 years (2011–15). Following the ST treatment, soil bulk density and strength were initially reduced to the depth of cultivation (~15 cm) irrespective of residue treatment. Water-stable macroaggregates in the surface 0–5 cm were also reduced but recovered to pre-tillage levels within 1–2 years after ST treatment. Soil pH, total carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), and fine-fraction C and N were all initially stratified in the surface layer (0–5 cm) of the NT treatment but were redistributed more evenly throughout the 0–10 cm layer of the ST treatment and remained so throughout the 5-year period. With ST, there was an initial loss in total C stocks in the 0–10 cm layer of 2.2 t/ha, which recovered within 2 years; however, total C stocks remained lower in plots with stubble retained than with stubble burnt after 5 years. Soil Colwell P levels were not stratified and not influenced by tillage treatment, presumably because of the annual additions in the starter fertiliser at sowing. ST had no impact on crop establishment or grain yield in any year but increased the early biomass of wheat at Z30 compared with NT in the first 2 years. Annual stubble retention reduced the early growth of crops in all years, and yield of wheat in the first 3 years, consistent with long-term effects of retained stubble at the site, but there was no interaction between stubble retention and tillage treatments on soil conditions or crop growth. Crop yields of long-term, annually cultivated treatments were also similar to those of ST and NT treatments during the 5 years of the experiment. Overall, the minor short-term negative impacts on soil physical conditions, the persistent and arguably beneficial effects on soil chemistry and biology, and absence of impacts on crop production suggest that strategic tillage can be a valuable agronomic tool in sustainable production in this region.
Keywords: acidity, aggregates, carbon sequestration, conservation agriculture, cultivation.
References
Alcántara V, Don A, Well R, Nieder R (2016) Deep ploughing increases agricultural soil organic matter stocks. Global Change Biology 22, 2939–2956.| Deep ploughing increases agricultural soil organic matter stocks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26994321PubMed |
Armstrong RD, Perris R, Munn M, Dunsford K, Robertson F, Hollaway GJ, O’Leary GJ (2019) Effects of long-term rotation and tillage practice on grain yield and protein of wheat and soil fertility in a Vertosol in a medium rainfall temperate environment. Crop and Pasture Science 70, 1–15.
| Effects of long-term rotation and tillage practice on grain yield and protein of wheat and soil fertility in a Vertosol in a medium rainfall temperate environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Azam G, Gazey C (2020) Slow movement of alkali from surface-applied lime warrants the introduction of strategic tillage for rapid amelioration of subsurface acidity in south-western Australia. Soil Research
| Slow movement of alkali from surface-applied lime warrants the introduction of strategic tillage for rapid amelioration of subsurface acidity in south-western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baan CD, Grevers MCJ, Schoen JJ (2009) Effects of a single cycle of tillage on long term no-till prairie soils. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 89, 521–530.
| Effects of a single cycle of tillage on long term no-till prairie soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker JM, Ochsner TE, Ventera RT, Griffis TJ (2007) Tillage and soil carbon sequestration: what do we really know? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 118, 1–5.
| Tillage and soil carbon sequestration: what do we really know?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell MJ, Bridge BJ, Harch GR, Orange DN (1997) Physical rehabilitation of degraded Kraznozem using ley pastures. Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 1013–1113.
Celestina C, Hunt JR, Sale PWG, Franks AE (2019) Attribution of crop yield responses to application of organic amendments: a critical review. Soil & Tillage Research 186, 135–145.
| Attribution of crop yield responses to application of organic amendments: a critical review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chan KY (1992) Development of seasonal water repellency under direct drilling. Soil Science Society of America Journal 56, 326–329.
| Development of seasonal water repellency under direct drilling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chen Y, Camps-Arbestain M, Shen Q, Singh B, Cayuela ML (2018) The long-term role of organic amendments in building soil nutrient fertility: a meta-analysis and review. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 111, 103–125.
| The long-term role of organic amendments in building soil nutrient fertility: a meta-analysis and review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers MK, Heenan DP, McGhie WJ, Poile GJ (2003) Amelioration of acidity with time by limestone under contrasting tillage. Soil & Tillage Research 72, 85–94.
| Amelioration of acidity with time by limestone under contrasting tillage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers MK, Newton P, Condon J, Poile G, Mele P, Ash G (2012) Three long term trials end with a quasi-equilibrium between soil C, N, and pH: an implication for C sequestration. Soil Research 50, 527–535.
| Three long term trials end with a quasi-equilibrium between soil C, N, and pH: an implication for C sequestration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers MK, Liu DL, Kirkegaard JA, Orgill S, Oates A, Li G, Poile G, Kirkby CA (2015) A review of organic carbon accumulation in soils within the agricultural context of southern New South Wales, Australia. Field Crops Research 184, 177–182.
| A review of organic carbon accumulation in soils within the agricultural context of southern New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers MK, van der Rijt V, Oates A, Poile G, Kirkegaard JA, Kirkby CA (2019a) The strategic use of tillage within conservation agriculture in southern New South Wales, Australia. Soil & Tillage Research 193, 17–26.
| The strategic use of tillage within conservation agriculture in southern New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conyers MK, Dang YP, Kirkegaard JA (2019b) Strategic tillage within conservation agriculture. In ‘Australian agriculture in 2020: from conservation to automation’. (Eds J Pratley, J Kirkegaard) pp. 107–115. (Agronomy Australia and Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Coonan EC, Kirkby CA, Kirkegaard JA, Amidy MR, Strong CL, Richardson AE (2020) Microorganisms and nutrient stoichiometry as mediators of soil organic matter dynamics Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 117, 273–298.
| Microorganisms and nutrient stoichiometry as mediators of soil organic matter dynamicsCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dang YP, Seymour NP, Walker SR, Bell MJ, Freebairn DM (2015a) Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains-growing regions: drivers and implementation. Soil & Tillage Research 152, 104–114.
| Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains-growing regions: drivers and implementation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dang YP, Moody PW, Bell MJ, Seymour NP, Dalal RC, Freebairn DM, Walker SR (2015b) Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains growing regions: II. Implications for agronomy, soil and environment. Soil & Tillage Research 152, 115–123.
| Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains growing regions: II. Implications for agronomy, soil and environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dick WA (1997) Tillage system impacts on environmental quality and soil biological parameters. Soil & Tillage Research 41, 165–167.
| Tillage system impacts on environmental quality and soil biological parameters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fischer RA, Hobbs P (2019) Tillage: global update and prospects. In ‘Australian agriculture in 2020: from conservation to automation’. (Eds J Pratley, J Kirkegaard) pp. 3–19. (Agronomy Australia and Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Giller KE, Andersson JA, Corbeels M, Kirkegaard J, Mortensen D, Erenstein O, Vanlauwe B (2015) Beyond conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science 6, 1–14.
| Beyond conservation agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Glen DM, Symondson WOC (2003) Influence of soil tillage on slugs and their natural enemies. In ‘Soil tillage in agroecosystems’. (Ed AE Titi) pp. 208–222. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Grandy AS, Robertson GP, Thelan KD (2006) Do productivity and environmental trade-offs justify periodically cultivating no-till cropping systems? Agronomy Journal 98, 1377–1383.
| Do productivity and environmental trade-offs justify periodically cultivating no-till cropping systems?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall DJM, Jones HR, Crabtree WL, Daniels T (2010) Claying and deep ripping can increase crop yields and profits on water relent sands with marginal fertility in southern Western Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 48, 178–187.
| Claying and deep ripping can increase crop yields and profits on water relent sands with marginal fertility in southern Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heenan DP, Taylor AC (1995) Soil pH decline in relation to rotation, tillage, stubble retention and nitrogen fertilizer in S.E. Australia. Soil Use and Management 11, 4–9.
| Soil pH decline in relation to rotation, tillage, stubble retention and nitrogen fertilizer in S.E. Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heenan DP, Chan KY, Knight PG (2004) Long-term impact of rotation, tillage and stubble management on the loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen from a Chromic Luvisol. Soil & Tillage Research 76, 59–68.
| Long-term impact of rotation, tillage and stubble management on the loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen from a Chromic Luvisol.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Helgason BL, Gregorich EG, Janzen HH, Ellert BH, Lorenz N, Dick RP (2014) Long-term microbial retention of residue C is site-specific and depends on residue placement Soil Biology & Biochemistry 68, 231–240.
| Long-term microbial retention of residue C is site-specific and depends on residue placementCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Helyar KR, Porter WM (1989) Soil acidification, its measurement and the processes involved. In ‘Soil acidity and plant growth’. (Ed. AD Robson) pp. 61–101. (Academic Press: Sydney)
Isbell RF (2002) ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ Revised edn. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.)
Kassam A, Friedrich T, Derpsch R (2019) Global spread of conservation agriculture. The International Journal of Environmental Studies 76, 29–51.
| Global spread of conservation agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby CA, Kirkegaard JA, Richardson AE, Wade LJ, Blanchard C, Batten G (2011) Stable soil organic matter: a comparison of C:N:P:S ratios in Australian and other wolrd soils. Geoderma 163, 197–208.
| Stable soil organic matter: a comparison of C:N:P:S ratios in Australian and other wolrd soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkby CA, Richardson AE, Wade LJ, Conyers M, Kirkegaard JA (2016) Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil. PLoS ONE 11, e0153698
| Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27144282PubMed |
Kirkegaard JA (1995) A review of trends in wheat yield responses to conservation cropping in Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 35, 835–848.
| A review of trends in wheat yield responses to conservation cropping in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, van Rees H (2019) Evolution of conservation agriculture in winter rainfall areas. In ‘Australian agriculture in 2020: from conservation to automation’. (Eds J Pratley, J Kirkegaard) pp. 47–64. (Agronomy Australia and Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Kirkegaard JA, Angus JF, Gardner PA, Muller W (1994) Reduced growth and yield of wheat with conservation cropping: field studies in the first year of the cropping phase. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 45, 511–528.
| Reduced growth and yield of wheat with conservation cropping: field studies in the first year of the cropping phase.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, Conyers MK, Hunt JR, Kirkby CA, Watt M, Rebetzke GJ (2014) Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 187, 133–145.
| Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard J, Swan T, Hunt J, Vadakattu G, Jones K (2018) The effects of stubble on nitrogen tie-up and supply. GRDC Update Papers, 13 Feb. 2018. Grains Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, ACT. Available at https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers/tab-content/grdc-update-papers/2018/02/the-effects-of-stubble-on-nitrogen-tie-up-and-supply [verified 6 November 2020]
Li GD, Conyers MK, Helyar KR, Lisle CJ, Poile GJ, Cullis BR (2019) Long-term surface application of lime ameliorates subsurface soil acidity in the mixed farming zone of south-eastern Australia. Geoderma 338, 236–246.
| Long-term surface application of lime ameliorates subsurface soil acidity in the mixed farming zone of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Llewellyn R, Ouzman J (2019) Conservation agriculture in Australia: 30 years on. In ‘Australian agriculture in 2020: from conservation to automation’. (Eds J Pratley, J Kirkegaard) pp. 21–31. (Agronomy Australia and Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Melland AR, Antille DL, Dang YP (2017) Effects of strategic tillage on short term erosion, nutrient loss in runoff and greenhouse gas emissions. Soil Research 55, 201–214.
| Effects of strategic tillage on short term erosion, nutrient loss in runoff and greenhouse gas emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Minasny B, McBratney AB (2018) Limited effect of organic matter on soil available water capacity. European Journal of Soil Science 69, 39–47.
| Limited effect of organic matter on soil available water capacity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Norton MR, Garden DL, Orchard BA, Armstrong P (2018) Ameliorating acidity of an extensively-managed permanent pasture soil. Soil Use and Management 34, 343–353.
| Ameliorating acidity of an extensively-managed permanent pasture soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Owen MJ, Walsh MJ, Llewellyn RS, Powles SB (2007) Widespread occurrence of multiple herbicide resistance in Western Australian annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) populations. Crop and Pasture Science 58, 711–718.
| Widespread occurrence of multiple herbicide resistance in Western Australian annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paul KI, Black AS, Conyers MK (2003) Development of acidic subsurface layers of soil under various management systems. Advances in Agronomy 78, 187–214.
| Development of acidic subsurface layers of soil under various management systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peixoto DS, da Silva L de CM, de Melo LBB, Azevedo RP, Araujo BCL, de Carvalho TS, Moreira SG, Curi N, Silva BM (2020) Occasional tillage in no-tillage systems: a global meta-analysis. The Science of the Total Environment 745, 140887
| Occasional tillage in no-tillage systems: a global meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32717599PubMed |
Pierce FJ, Fortin M-C, Staton MJ (1994) Periodic plowing effects on soil properties in a no-till farming system. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58, 1782–1787.
| Periodic plowing effects on soil properties in a no-till farming system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Powles SB, Yu Q (2010) Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides. Annual Review of Plant Biology 61, 317–347.
| Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20192743PubMed |
Quincke JA, Wortmann CS, Mamo M, Franti T, Drijber RA, Garcia JP (2007) One-time tillage of no-till systems: soil physical properties, phosphorus run-off, and crop yield. Agronomy Journal 99, 1104–1110.
| One-time tillage of no-till systems: soil physical properties, phosphorus run-off, and crop yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rahman L, Chan KY, Heenan DP (2007) Impact of tillage, stubble management and crop rotation on nematode populations in a long-term field experiment. Soil & Tillage Research 95, 110–119.
| Impact of tillage, stubble management and crop rotation on nematode populations in a long-term field experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rayment GE, Lyons DL (2011) ‘Soil chemical methods: Australasia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.)
Richardson A, Coonan E, Kirkby C, Orgill S (2019) Soil organic matter and carbon sequestration. In ‘Australian agriculture in 2020: from conservation to automation’. (Eds J Pratley, J Kirkegaard) pp. 255–271. (Agronomy Australia and Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Rumpel C (2008) Does burning of harvesting residues increase soil carbon storage. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 8, 44–51.
Sanderman J, Hengl T, Fiske GJ (2017) Soil carbon debt of 12,000 years of human land use. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, 9575–9580.
| Soil carbon debt of 12,000 years of human land use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28827323PubMed |
Schjønning P, Jensen JL, Bruun S, Jensen LS, Christensen BT, Munkholm LJ, Oelofse M, Baby S, Knudsen L (2018) The role of soil organic matter for maintaining crop yields: evidence for a renewed conceptual basis. Advances in Agronomy 150, 35–79.
| The role of soil organic matter for maintaining crop yields: evidence for a renewed conceptual basis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simpfendorfer S, Kirkegaard JA, Heenan DP, Wong PTW (2001) Involvement of root inhibitory Pseudomonas spp. in the poor early growth of direct drilled wheat in intact cores. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52, 845–853.
| Involvement of root inhibitory Pseudomonas spp. in the poor early growth of direct drilled wheat in intact cores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sun W, Canadell J, Yu L, Yu L, Zhang W, Smith P, Fischer RA, Huang Y (2020) Climate drives global soil carbon sequestration and crop yield changes under conservation agriculture. Global Change Biology 26, 3325–3335.
| Climate drives global soil carbon sequestration and crop yield changes under conservation agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31953897PubMed |
Umbers A (2017) Farm practices survey report 2016. Grains Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, ACT. Available at https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all-publications/publications/2018/farm-practices-survey-report-2016 [verified 6 November 2020]
Vance ED, Brookes PC, Jenkinson DS (1987) An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19, 703–707.
| An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vu DT, Tang C, Armstrong RD (2009) Tillage system affects phosphorus form and depth distribution in three contrasting Victorian soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 47, 33–45.
| Tillage system affects phosphorus form and depth distribution in three contrasting Victorian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wander MM, Bidart MG (2000) Tillage practice influences on the physical protection, bioavailability and composition of particulate organic matter. Biology and Fertility of Soils 32, 360–367.
| Tillage practice influences on the physical protection, bioavailability and composition of particulate organic matter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watt M, Kirkegaard JA, Passioura JB (2006) Rhizosphere biology and crop productivity. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 299–317.
| Rhizosphere biology and crop productivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wortmann CS, Drijber RA, Franti TG (2010) One-time tillage of no-till crop land five years post-tillage. Agronomy Journal 102, 1302–1307.
| One-time tillage of no-till crop land five years post-tillage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yoder RE (1936) A Direct method of Aggregate Analysis of Soils and a Study of the Physical nature of Erosion Losses. Journal - American Society of Agronomy 28, 337–351.
| A Direct method of Aggregate Analysis of Soils and a Study of the Physical nature of Erosion Losses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zadoks JC, Chang TT, Konzak CF (1974) A decimal code for the growth stages of cereals. Weed Research 14, 415–421.
| A decimal code for the growth stages of cereals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
