Register      Login
Crop and Pasture Science Crop and Pasture Science Society
Plant sciences, sustainable farming systems and food quality
REVIEW (Open Access)

Black root rot of cotton in Australia: the host, the pathogen and disease management

Lily L. Pereg
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

Research Group of Molecular Biology, School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia. Email: lily.pereg@une.edu.au

Crop and Pasture Science 64(12) 1112-1126 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP13231
Submitted: 1 July 2013  Accepted: 4 November 2013   Published: 18 December 2013

Journal Compilation © CSIRO Publishing 2013 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND

Abstract

Black root rot is a seedling disease caused by the soil-borne fungal pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola, a species with a worldwide distribution. Diseased plants show blackening of the roots and a reduced number of lateral roots, stunted or slow growth, and delayed flowering or maturity. It was first detected in cotton in Australia in 1989, and by 2004, T. basicola reached all cotton-growing regions in New South Wales and Queensland and the disease was declared as an Australian pandemic. This review covers aspects of the disease that have implications in black root rot spread, severity and management, including the biology and ecology of T. basicola, host range and specificity, chemical and biological control of T. basicola in cotton cropping systems, and crop rotations and host resistance. This review is of special interest to Australian readers; however, the incorporation of ample information on the biology of the pathogen, its interactions with plants and it relation to disease management will benefit readers worldwide.


References

Allen SJ (1990) Thielaviopsis basicola, a new record on cotton in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 19, 24–25.
Thielaviopsis basicola, a new record on cotton in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Allen SJ (2001) Black root rot. In ‘Compendium of cotton diseases’. 2nd edn (Eds TL Kirkpatrick, CS Rothrock) pp. 16–17. (APS Press: St Paul, MN)

Allen SJ (2007) Field evaluation of a seed treatment that induces resistance to Thielaviopsis basicola in cotton. In ‘The 4th World Cotton Research Conference’. 10–14 September 2007, Lubbock, TX, USA. (International Cotton Advisory Committee: Washington, DC) Available at: http://wcrc.confex.com/wcrc/2007/techprogram/P2011.HTM

Allen SJ, Kirkby KA, Lehane J, Lonergan PA, Cooper BR, Smith LJ (2012a) Cotton pathology survey 2010–11. In ‘Cotton pest management guide 2011–2012’. (Cotton Catchment Communities CRC: Narrabri, NSW) Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/industry/Publications/Cotton_Pest_Management_Guide_2011_12

Allen SJ, Smith LJ, Scheikowski L, Gambley C, Sharman M, Maas S (2012b) Common diseases of cotton. In ‘Cotton pest management guide 2011–2012’. (Cotton Catchment Communities CRC: Narrabri, NSW) Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/industry/Publications/Cotton_Pest_Management_Guide_2011_12

Arthur KS (1996) Baytan seed treatment fungicides: A review of field performance across the cotton-growing regions. In ‘Proceedings of 1996 Beltwide Cotton Conference’. Nashville, TN. (Eds P Dugger, DA Ritcher) pp. 268–269. (National Cotton Council: Memphis, TN)

Baard SW, Laubscher C (1985) Histopathology of blackhull incited by Thielaviopsis basicola in groundnuts. Phytophylactica 17, 85–88.

Bateman DF (1962) Relation of soil pH to development of Poinsettia root rots. Phytopathology 52, 559–566.

Bottacin AM, Levesque CA, Punja ZK (1994) Characterization of dsRNA in Chalara elegans and effects on growth and virulence. Phytopathology 84, 303–312.
Characterization of dsRNA in Chalara elegans and effects on growth and virulence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXmslegt70%3D&md5=7ad828c7a1c734c469e396930ba4cfa9CAS |

Brubaker CL, Brown AHD, Stewart JM, Kilby MJ, Grace JP (1999) Production of fertile hybrid germplasm with diploid Australian Gossypium species for cotton improvement. Euphytica 108, 199–213.
Production of fertile hybrid germplasm with diploid Australian Gossypium species for cotton improvement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Butler LD, Lawrence D, Becton M (1996) Nu-Flow M: A safe new seed treatment fungicide for the control of cotton seedling disease caused by Thielaviopsis basicola and Rhizoctonia solani. In ‘Proceedings of 1996 Beltwide Cotton Conference’. Nashville, TN. (Eds P Dugger, DA Ritcher) pp. 268–269. (National Cotton Council: Memphis, TN)

Candole BL, Rothrock CS (1998) Using marked strains to assess the effect of hairy vetch amendment on the inoculum densities of Thielaviopsis basicola, Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 30, 443–448.
Using marked strains to assess the effect of hairy vetch amendment on the inoculum densities of Thielaviopsis basicola, Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjtFeit7g%3D&md5=e6ea314cd1e7cf1a3f10876b45f1f0b6CAS |

CCC-CRC (2012a) Australian cotton history. Cotton Catchment Community CRC, Narrabri, NSW. Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/communities/Cotton_Info

CCC-CRC (2012b) Disease survey reports 2004–2011. Disease and microbiology. Cotton Catchment Community CRC, Narrabri, NSW. Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/industry/Publications/Disease_Microbiology

Chakrabarti A, Ganapathi TR, Mukherjee PK, Bapat VA (2003) MSI-99, a magainin analogue, imparts enhanced disease resistance in transgenic tobacco and banana. Planta 216, 587–596.

Chittaranjan S, Punja ZK (1994) Factors influencing survival of phialospores of Chalara elegans in organic soil. Plant Disease 78, 411–415.
Factors influencing survival of phialospores of Chalara elegans in organic soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coumans JVF, Poljak A, Raftery MJ, Backhouse D, Pereg-Gerk L (2009) Analysis of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) root proteomes during a compatible interaction with the black root rot fungus Thielaviopsis basicola. Proteomics 9, 335–349.
Analysis of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) root proteomes during a compatible interaction with the black root rot fungus Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhvVSis7s%3D&md5=12a414484f408cd513499304264f985fCAS |

Coumans JVF, Moens PDJ, Poljak A, Al-Jaaidi S, Pereg L, Raftery MJ (2010) Plant extract induced changes in the proteome of the soilborne pathogenic fungus Thielaviopsis basicola. Proteomics 10, 1573–1591.
Plant extract induced changes in the proteome of the soilborne pathogenic fungus Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXltVans78%3D&md5=e481e9f7e48e5a6c83cc32a92d958159CAS |

Coumans JVF, Harvey J, Backhouse D, Poljak A, Raftery MJ, Nehl D, Katz ME, Pereg L (2011) Proteomics assessment of host-associated microevolution in the fungus Thielaviopsis basicola isolates. Environmental Microbiology 13, 576–588.
Proteomics assessment of host-associated microevolution in the fungus Thielaviopsis basicola isolates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXkslWhtbs%3D&md5=40384725bd5bb3a77d6910a7eff6b100CAS |

Defago G, Berling CH, Burger H, Haas D, Kahr G, Keel C, Voisard C, Wirthner P, Wuthrich B (1990) Suppression of black root rot of tobacco and other root diseases by strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens: Potential applications and mechanisms. In ‘Biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens’. (Ed. D Hornby) (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

Delgado A, Franco GM, Paez JI, Vega JM, Carmona E, Aviles M (2006) Incidence of cotton seedling diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Thielaviopsis basicola in relation to previous crop, residue management and nutrients availability in soils in SW Spain. Journal of Phytopathology 154, 710–714.

Delvecchio VG, Corbaz R, Turian G (1969) An ultrastructural study of the hyphae, endoconidia and chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola. Journal of General Microbiology 58, 23–27.
An ultrastructural study of the hyphae, endoconidia and chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaE3c%2FmtFaitQ%3D%3D&md5=1c6ea11f0e460a60da441d057fb875c2CAS | 5391065PubMed |

Dowling D (Ed.) (2003) ‘The Australian Cottongrower. Cotton Yearbook 2003.’ (Greenmount Press: Toowoomba, Qld)

El-Hamalawi ZA (2008a) Attraction, acquisition, retention and spatiotemporal distribution of soilborne plant pathogenic fungi by shore flies. Annals of Applied Biology 152, 169–177.
Attraction, acquisition, retention and spatiotemporal distribution of soilborne plant pathogenic fungi by shore flies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

El-Hamalawi ZA (2008b) Acquisition, retention and dispersal of soilborne plant pathogenic fungi by fungus gnats and moth flies. Annals of Applied Biology 153, 195–203.

Ellis MB (1971) ‘Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes.’ (Commonwealth Mycological Institute: Kew, UK)

Farr DF, Rossman AY (2013) Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA, Washington, DC. Available at: http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ (accessed 29 June 2013)

Fichtner EJ, Hesterberg DL, Smyth TJ, Shew HD (2006) Differential sensitivity of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae and Thielaviopsis basicola to monomeric aluminum species. Phytopathology 96, 212–220.
Differential sensitivity of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae and Thielaviopsis basicola to monomeric aluminum species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XisFGqsb0%3D&md5=c5995068c1203c3d07e6c704926156b4CAS | 18944434PubMed |

Frapolli M, Defago G, Moenne-Loccoz Y (2010) Denaturing gradient gel electrophoretic analysis of dominant 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol biosynthetic phlD alleles in fluorescent Pseudomonas from soils suppressive or conducive to black root rot of tobacco. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 42, 649–656.
Denaturing gradient gel electrophoretic analysis of dominant 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol biosynthetic phlD alleles in fluorescent Pseudomonas from soils suppressive or conducive to black root rot of tobacco.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXis1Sgtr4%3D&md5=4013f248f1eb136baaee5b9f8c52feabCAS |

Gayed SK (1972) Host range and persistence of Thielaviopsis basicola in tobacco soils. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 52, 869–873.
Host range and persistence of Thielaviopsis basicola in tobacco soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Geldenhuis MM, Roux J, Cilliers AJ, Wingfield BD, Wingfield MJ (2006) Clonality in South African isolates and evidence for a European origin of the root pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola. Mycological Research 110, 306–311.
Clonality in South African isolates and evidence for a European origin of the root pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xkslantbg%3D&md5=ad352dd2622610cb3a891d0608bb4681CAS | 16530627PubMed |

Graham JH, Timmer NH (1991) Peat-based media as a source of Thielaviopsis basicola causing black root rot on citrus seedlings. Plant Disease 75, 1246–1249.
Peat-based media as a source of Thielaviopsis basicola causing black root rot on citrus seedlings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harrison UJ, Shew HD (2001) Effects of soil pH and nitrogen fertility on the population dynamics of Thielaviopsis basicola. Plant and Soil 228, 147–155.
Effects of soil pH and nitrogen fertility on the population dynamics of Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhvFaqs7s%3D&md5=e3c6a85ae2839f7bbf2a793bcd5e3bc1CAS |

Harvey JA, Nehl DB, Aitken EA (2003) Geographical distribution of Thielaviopsis basicola in Australia. In ‘8th International Congress of Plant Pathology’. p. 258. (International Society for Plant Pathology: Christchurch, New Zealand)

Healy ND (1923) ‘Australian cotton: its growth and consequence.’ (Australasian Publishing Company: Sydney)

Hillocks RJ (1992) Seedling diseases. In ‘Cotton diseases’. (Ed. RJ Hillocks) pp. 1–39. (CAB International. Wallingford, UK)

Holtz BA, Weinhold AR (1994) Thielaviopsis basicola in San Joaquin Valley soils and the relationship between inoculum density and disease severity of cotton seedlings. Plant Disease 78, 986–990.
Thielaviopsis basicola in San Joaquin Valley soils and the relationship between inoculum density and disease severity of cotton seedlings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Honess T (1994) Aetiological aspects of black root rot of cotton. PhD Thesis, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia.

Hood ME, Shew HD (1996) Pathogenesis of Thielaviopsis basicola on a susceptible and a resistant cultivar of burley tobacco. Phytopathology 86, 38–44.
Pathogenesis of Thielaviopsis basicola on a susceptible and a resistant cultivar of burley tobacco.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hood ME, Shew HD (1997) Initial cellular interactions between Thielaviopsis basicola and tobacco root hairs. Phytopathology 87, 228–235.
Initial cellular interactions between Thielaviopsis basicola and tobacco root hairs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1cjjvVClsw%3D%3D&md5=936519481067c63d5af8edc2ac007743CAS | 18945164PubMed |

Howell CR (2003) Mechanisms employed by Trichoderma species in the biological control of plant diseases: The history and evolution of current concepts. Plant Disease 87, 4–10.
Mechanisms employed by Trichoderma species in the biological control of plant diseases: The history and evolution of current concepts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Howell CR, Hanson LE, Stipanovic RD (1998) Seedling disease control: Induction of phytoalexin synthesis in cotton by biocontrol agents (Abstract). In ‘Proceedings Beltwide Cotton Conference’. San Diego, CA. (National Cotton Council of America: Memphis, TN)

Howell CR, Hanson LE, Stipanovic RD, Puckhaber LS (2000) Induction of terpenoid synthesis in cotton roots and control of Rhizoctonia solani by seed treatment with Trichoderma virens. Phytopathology 90, 248–252.
Induction of terpenoid synthesis in cotton roots and control of Rhizoctonia solani by seed treatment with Trichoderma virens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXhvFOgu7o%3D&md5=f66004ef00f0956749cc364dcd4588b5CAS | 18944616PubMed |

Huang J, Kang Z (2010) Detection of Thielaviopsis basicola in soil with real-time quantitative PCR assays. Microbiological Research 165, 411–417.
Detection of Thielaviopsis basicola in soil with real-time quantitative PCR assays.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVGksb7O&md5=8601300340d2c0039be9b723b76827b1CAS | 19837572PubMed |

Huang HC, Patrick ZA (1971) Variability of Thielaviopsis basicola in culture. Canadian Journal of Botany 49, 1041–1047.
Variability of Thielaviopsis basicola in culture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jhorar O (2004) Managing black root rot of cotton. Final report DAN153. Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Narrabri, NSW. Available at: http://crdc.com.au/the-business-of-rd/farming-systems/research-reports-completed-between-2003-2008/

Jones BL (1991) Penetration and development of Chalara elegans in peanut (Arachis hypogaea). Phytophylactica 23, 81–84.

Kaufman H, Wheeler TH, Graves R, Schuster G, Kids P, Siders K (1988) Large plot performance of seedling disease seed treatment fungicides. In ‘Proceedings 1988 Beltwide Cotton Conference’. New Orleans, LA. pp. 149–152. (National Cotton Council of America: Memphis, TN)

Kaufmann DD, Williams LE (1964) Effect of mineral, fertilization and soil reaction on soil fungi. Phytopathology 54, 134–139.

Keel C, Voisard C, Berling CH, Kahr G, Defago G (1989) Iron sufficiency, a prerequisite for the suppression of tobacco black root rot by Pseudomonas fluorescens strain CHA0 under gnotobiotic conditions. Phytopathology 79, 584–589.
Iron sufficiency, a prerequisite for the suppression of tobacco black root rot by Pseudomonas fluorescens strain CHA0 under gnotobiotic conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keller JR, Shanks JB (1955) Poinsettia root rot. Phytopathology 45, 552–558.

King CJ, Presley JT (1942) A root rot of cotton caused by Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 32, 752–761.

Knox OGG, Anderson CMT, Allen SJ, Nehl DB (2006) Helicotylenchus dihystera in Australian cotton roots. Australasian Plant Pathology 35, 287–288.
Helicotylenchus dihystera in Australian cotton roots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Koike ST, Henderson DM (1998) Black root rot, caused by Thielaviopsis basicola, on tomato transplants in California. Plant Disease 82, 447
Black root rot, caused by Thielaviopsis basicola, on tomato transplants in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kristyanne ES, Kim KS, Stewart KM (1997) Magainin 2 effects on the ultrastructure of five plant pathogens. Mycologia 89, 353–360.
Magainin 2 effects on the ultrastructure of five plant pathogens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXktF2jsb0%3D&md5=d51db4ad8644e2dcfa590f97edbcfa77CAS |

Kumar V, Joshi SG, Bell AA, Rathore KS (2013) Enhanced resistance against Thielaviopsis basicola in transgenic cotton plants expressing Arabidopsis NPR1 gene. Transgenic Research 22, 359–368.
Enhanced resistance against Thielaviopsis basicola in transgenic cotton plants expressing Arabidopsis NPR1 gene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXjsFOitLk%3D&md5=f1710dbb2f7d7b851022406d8cc0afadCAS | 23001518PubMed |

Laville J, Voisard C, Keel C, Maurhofer M, Defago G, Haas D (1992) Global control in Pseudomonas fluorescens mediating antibiotic synthesis and suppression of black root rot of tobacco. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 89, 1562–1566.
Global control in Pseudomonas fluorescens mediating antibiotic synthesis and suppression of black root rot of tobacco.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXhvVOls7o%3D&md5=a7ff4c7f7ca4a30544d2dbfba230db21CAS | 1311842PubMed |

Lindeman RG, Tousson TA (1968) Pathogenesis of Thielaviopsis basicola in nonsterile soil. Phytopathology 58, 1578–1583.

Lloyd AB, Lockwood JL (1963) Effect of soil temperature, host variety and fungus strain on Thielaviopsis root rot of peas. Phytopathology 53, 329–331.

Lucas GB (1955) The cardinal temperatures and pH response of Thielaviopsis basicola. Mycologia 47, 793–798.
The cardinal temperatures and pH response of Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Maas S (2011) Disease management. In ‘Australian cotton production manual 2011’. (Cotton Catchment Communities CRC: Narrabri, NSW) Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/industry/Publications/Australian_Cotton_Production_Manual

Mathre DE, Ravenscroft AV (1966) Physiology of germination of chlamydospores and endoconidia of Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 56, 337–342.

Mathre DE, Ravenscroft AV, Garber RH (1966) The role of Thielaviopsis basicola as a primary cause of yield reduction in cotton in California. Phytopathology 56, 1213–1216.

Matthiessen J, Kirkegaard JA (2006) Biofumigation and enhanced biodegradation: Opportunity and challenge in soilborne pest and disease management. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 25, 235–265.
Biofumigation and enhanced biodegradation: Opportunity and challenge in soilborne pest and disease management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmsVGqsbg%3D&md5=f5ddef79437f89903faf21cddec36638CAS |

Mauk PA, Hine RB (1988) Infection, colonization of Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense, and development of black root rot caused by Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 78, 1662–1667.
Infection, colonization of Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense, and development of black root rot caused by Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meyer JR, Shew HD (1991) Development of black root rot on burley tobacco as influenced by inoculum density of Thielaviopsis basicola, host resistance, and soil chemistry. Plant Disease 75, 601–605.
Development of black root rot on burley tobacco as influenced by inoculum density of Thielaviopsis basicola, host resistance, and soil chemistry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXmtVemur4%3D&md5=068c82f352f0f3166edfac94aac88466CAS |

Meyer JR, Shew HD, Harrison UJ (1994) Inhibition of germination and growth of Thielaviopsis basicola by aluminium. Phytopathology 84, 598–602.
Inhibition of germination and growth of Thielaviopsis basicola by aluminium.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXmt1eku74%3D&md5=e0a3e50be74875b10ec1c854aa8535e0CAS |

Mims CW, Copes WE, Richardson EA (2000) Ultrastructure of the penetration and infection of pansy roots by Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 90, 843–850.
Ultrastructure of the penetration and infection of pansy roots by Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1cjjslyjsA%3D%3D&md5=a59c9f2035080521536778112768176cCAS | 18944505PubMed |

Minton EB, Papavizas GC, Lewis JA (1982) Effects of fungicide seed treatments and seed quality on seedling diseases and yield of cotton. Plant Disease 66, 832–835.
Effects of fungicide seed treatments and seed quality on seedling diseases and yield of cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XlslKku7w%3D&md5=ae9b740819360abc7213cdb2d8dc04b7CAS |

Mondal AH, Nehl DB, Deverall BJ (2000) Induced resistance can protect cotton and legumes from black root rot. In ‘Cotton: meeting the challenge. 10th Australian Cotton Conference’. 16–18 August 2000, Brisbane, Qld, Australia. (Australian Cotton Growers’ Research Association Inc.: Orange, NSW)

Mondal AH, Nehl DB, Allen SJ (2004) First report of Thielaviopsis basicola on soybean in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 33, 451–452.
First report of Thielaviopsis basicola on soybean in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nag Raj TR, Kendrick B (1975) ‘A monograph of Chalara and allied genera.’ (Wilfrid Laurier University Press: Waterloo, ON, Canada)

Nan ZB, Long PG, Skipp RA, Hopcroft DH (1992) Microscopy of invasion of red clover roots by Trichocladium basicola, and effects of benomyl and prochloraz. Plant Pathology 41, 449–461.
Microscopy of invasion of red clover roots by Trichocladium basicola, and effects of benomyl and prochloraz.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XlvVKmtb0%3D&md5=808bcad6672704bcbfaf3e2611d0859aCAS |

Nehl DB, Mondal AH, Smart G (1998) Preliminary screening for resistance to black root rot in Gossypium species. In ‘8th Australian Cotton Conference’. Narrabri, NSW. (Australian Cotton Growers’ Research Association Inc.: Orange, NSW)

Nehl DB, Mondal AH, Allen SJ (2000) Managing black root. In ‘Cotton: meeting the challenge. 10th Australian Cotton Conference’. 16–18 August 2000, Brisbane, Qld. pp. 301–307. (Australian Cotton Grower’s Research Association Inc.: Orange, NSW)

Nehl DB, Allen SJ, Mondal AH, Lonergan PA (2004a) Black root rot: a pandemic in Australian cotton. Australasian Plant Pathology 33, 87–95.
Black root rot: a pandemic in Australian cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nehl DB, Allen SJ, Mondal AH, Lonergan PA (2004b) Do long fallows decrease mycorrhizas in cotton? In ‘Proceedings of 12th Australian Cotton Conference’. Gold Coast, Qld. Available at: www.insidecotton.com/xmlui/handle/1/503

Niu C, Lister HE, Nguyen B, Wheeler TA, Wright RJ (2008) Resistance to Thielaviopsis basicola in the cultivated A genome cotton. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 117, 1313–1323.
Resistance to Thielaviopsis basicola in the cultivated A genome cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtlSgsLjK&md5=f97a76e7e4ff8ea529092738553bfd11CAS | 18754098PubMed |

O’Brien RG, Davis RD (1994) Lettuce black root rot—a disease caused by Chalara elegans. Australasian Plant Pathology 23, 106–111.
Lettuce black root rot—a disease caused by Chalara elegans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

OGTR (2006) Office of the Gene Technology Regulator. Australian Government Department of Health. Available at: www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/

Otani Y (1962) Studies on the black root rot disease caused by Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Br.) Ferraris. Bulletin Okayama Tobacco Experiment Station 23, 1–118.

Oyarzun PJ, Gerlagh M, Zadocks JC (1998) Factors associated with soil receptivity to some fungal root rot pathogens of peas. Applied Soil Ecology 10, 151–169.
Factors associated with soil receptivity to some fungal root rot pathogens of peas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Papavizas GC (1968) Survival of root-infecting fungi in soil. VI. Effect of amendments on bean root rot caused by Thielaviopsis basicola and on inoculum density of the causal organism. Phytopathology 58, 421–428.

Papavizas GC, Adams PB (1969) Survival of root-infecting fungi in soil. XII. Germination and survival of endoconidia and chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola in fallow soil and in soil adjacent to germinating bean seed. Phyotopathology 59, 371–378.

Papavizas GC, Lewis JA (1971) Survival of endoconidia and chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola as effected by soil environmental factors. Phytopathology 61, 108–113.
Survival of endoconidia and chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola as effected by soil environmental factors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pattemore J, Aitken EAB (2000) Genetic variation among populations of Thielaviopsis basicola, the causal agent of black root rot. In ‘Cotton: Meeting the Challenge. 10th Australian Cotton Conference’. 16–18 August 2000, Brisbane, Qld. pp. 499–505. (Australian Cotton Growers’ Research Association Inc.: Orange, NSW)

Paulin-Mahady AE, Harrington TC, McNew D (2002) Phylogenetic and taxonomic evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94, 62–72.
Phylogenetic and taxonomic evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with Ceratocystis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XhsVegt7s%3D&md5=3c6c942bde007f0b746f96173422c275CAS | 21156478PubMed |

Paulitz T, Nowak-Thompson B, Gamard P, Tsang E, Loper J (2000) A novel antifungal furanone from Pseudomonas aureofaciens, a biocontrol agent of fungal plant pathogens. Journal of Chemical Ecology 26, 1515–1524.
A novel antifungal furanone from Pseudomonas aureofaciens, a biocontrol agent of fungal plant pathogens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXksVKisr0%3D&md5=331719a95b324a9d94003f39804fde11CAS |

Pereg L (2011) Molecular factors determining Thielaviopsis basicola-cotton interactions leading to black root rot disease. Full Final Report to the Cotton Catchment Communities CRC, Narrabri, NSW. Available at: www.cottoncrc.org.au/general/Research/Projects/1_01_21

Perlak FJ, Oppenhuizen M, Gustafson K, Voth R, Sivasupraniam S, Heering D, Carey B, Ihrig RA, Roberts JK (2001) Development and commercial use of Bollgard cotton in the USA—early promises versus today’s reality. The Plant Journal 27, 489–501.
Development and commercial use of Bollgard cotton in the USA—early promises versus today’s reality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MrjtVOnsw%3D%3D&md5=f93c8874deb4086706ed30203b86afbaCAS | 11576434PubMed |

Pray CE, Huang J, Hu R, Rozelle S (2002) Five years of Bt cotton in China – the benefits continue. The Plant Journal 31, 423–430.
Five years of Bt cotton in China – the benefits continue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XnvVSqt74%3D&md5=88db25587a9091a7b228af6310e38cd4CAS | 12182701PubMed |

Prell HH, Day PR (2001) ‘Plant–fungal pathogen interaction. A classical and molecular view .’ (Springer: Berlin)

Prinsloo GC, Baard SW, Ferreira JF (1991) Organisms associated with black root rot of chicory in South Africa. Phytophylactica 23, 59–67.

Punja ZK (1993) Influence of culture conditions on mycelial growth and phialospore production and germination in Chalara elegans. Canadian Journal of Botany 71, 447–456.
Influence of culture conditions on mycelial growth and phialospore production and germination in Chalara elegans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Punja ZK (1995) Influence of double-stranded RNAs on growth, sporulation, pathogenicity and survival of Chalara elegans. Canadian Journal of Botany 73, 1001–1009.
Influence of double-stranded RNAs on growth, sporulation, pathogenicity and survival of Chalara elegans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXotFOhur0%3D&md5=f21c3f2ddfe95e9381cd3466f90fd18fCAS |

Punja ZK, Sun LJ (1999) Morphological and molecular characterization of Chalara elegans (Thielaviopsis basicola), cause of black root rot on diverse plant species. Canadian Journal of Botany 77, 1801–1812.
Morphological and molecular characterization of Chalara elegans (Thielaviopsis basicola), cause of black root rot on diverse plant species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Punja ZK, Chittaranjan S, Gaye M (1992) Development of black root rot caused by Chalara elegans of fresh market carrots. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 14, 299–309.
Development of black root rot caused by Chalara elegans of fresh market carrots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pyke BA (Ed.) (2007) The impact of high adoption of Bollgard®II cotton on pest management in Australia. In ‘The 4th World Cotton Research Conference’. 10–14 September 2007, Lubbock, TX, USA. (International Cotton Advisory Committee: Washington, DC) Available at: http://wcrc.confex.com/wcrc/2007/techprogram/P1940.HTM

Ramette A, Moenne-Loccoz Y, Delfago G (2003) Prevalence of fluorescent pseudomonads producing antifungal phloroglucinols and/or hydrogen cyanide in soils naturally suppressive or conducive to tobacco black root rot. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 44, 35–43.
Prevalence of fluorescent pseudomonads producing antifungal phloroglucinols and/or hydrogen cyanide in soils naturally suppressive or conducive to tobacco black root rot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXivFCrtL8%3D&md5=e8f859e5e85655cc83157f424ddfeaefCAS | 19719649PubMed |

Rogers TH, Giddens JE (1957) Green manure and cover crops. In ‘Soil, the yearbook of agriculture’. (Ed. A Stefferud) pp. 252–257. (USDA: Washington, DC)

Rothrock CS (1992) Influence of soil temperature, water, and texture on Thielaviopsis basicola and black root rot of cotton. Phytopathology 82, 1202–1206.
Influence of soil temperature, water, and texture on Thielaviopsis basicola and black root rot of cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rothrock CS, Kirkpatrick TL (1995) The influence of winter legume cover crops on soilborne plant pathogens and cotton seedling diseases. Plant Disease 79, 167–171.
The influence of winter legume cover crops on soilborne plant pathogens and cotton seedling diseases.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rothrock CS, Nehl DB (2000) Reproductive potential of Thielaviopsis basicola on plant species and chlamydospore germination in response to host and nonhost exudates Phytopathology 90, S67 [Abstract]

Schippers B (1970) Survival of endoconidia of Thielaviopsis basicola in soil. Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology 76, 206–211.
Survival of endoconidia of Thielaviopsis basicola in soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schoina C, Stringlis IA, Pantelides IS, Tjamos SE, Paplomatas EJ (2011) Evaluation of application methods and biocontrol efficacy of Paenibacillus alvei strain K-165, against the cotton black root rot pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola. Biological Control 58, 68–73.
Evaluation of application methods and biocontrol efficacy of Paenibacillus alvei strain K-165, against the cotton black root rot pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Scott HD, Keisling TC, Waddle BA, Williams RW, Frans RE (1990) Effects of winter cover crops on yield of cotton and soil properties. Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 924, 21 pp.

Shew HD, Meyer JR (1992) Thielaviopsis. In ‘Methods for research on soilborne pathogenic fungi’. (Eds LL Singleton, JD Mihail, CM Rush) pp. 171–174. (APS Press: St Paul, MN)

Simmonds JH (1966) ‘Host index of plant diseases in Queensland.’ (Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Plant Pathology Branch: Brisbane, Qld)

Smith BJ, Kirkegaard JA (2002) In vitro inhibition of soil microorganisms by 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate. Plant Pathology 51, 585–593.
In vitro inhibition of soil microorganisms by 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XovVWqs70%3D&md5=df28de86895e6d47c4f231fe18f551f2CAS |

Stanghellini ME, Rasmussen SL, Kim DH (1999) Aerial transmission of Thielaviopsis basicola, a pathogen of corn-salad, by adult shore flies. Phytopathology 89, 476–479.
Aerial transmission of Thielaviopsis basicola, a pathogen of corn-salad, by adult shore flies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1cjjvVSitA%3D%3D&md5=1df808fbc2bcb31df7b38175893d2a5dCAS | 18944719PubMed |

Stipanovic RD, Macea ME, Bell AA, Beier RC (1992) The role of free radicals in the decomposition of the phytoalexin desoxyhemigossypol. Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1: Organic and Bio-Organic Chemistry 23, 3189–3192.
The role of free radicals in the decomposition of the phytoalexin desoxyhemigossypol.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stotz HU, Thomson JG, Wang Y (2009) Plant defensins. Defense, development and application. Plant Signaling & Behavior 4, 1010–1012.
Plant defensins. Defense, development and application.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXms1aju7Y%3D&md5=722fd468dfdc19392c9641ed61f5ef67CAS |

Stover RH (1950) The black root rot disease of tobacco. I. Studies on the causal organism Thielaviopsis basicola. Canadian Journal of Research 28c, 445–470.
The black root rot disease of tobacco. I. Studies on the causal organism Thielaviopsis basicola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stutz E, Kahr G, Defago G (1989) Clays involved in suppression of tobacco black root rot by a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 21, 361–366.
Clays involved in suppression of tobacco black root rot by a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Subramanian CV (1968) Thielaviopsis basicola. C.M.I. Descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria. No. 170. In ‘Descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria’. (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux: Kew, UK)

Subramanian CV (1983) ‘Hyphomycetes taxonomy and biology.’ (Academic Press: London)

Tabachnik M, De Vay JE, Garber RH, Wakeman RJ (1979) Influence of soil inoculum concentrations on host range and disease reactions caused by isolates of Thielaviopsis basicola and comparison of soil assay methods. Phytopathology 69, 974–977.
Influence of soil inoculum concentrations on host range and disease reactions caused by isolates of Thielaviopsis basicola and comparison of soil assay methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thevissen K, Terras FRG, Broekaert WF (1999) Permeabilization of fungal membranes by plant defensins inhibits fungal growth. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 5451–5458.

Thevissen K, Warnecke DC, Francois IEJA, Leipelt M, Heinz E, Ott C, Zahringer U, Thomma BPHJ, Ferket KKA, Cammue BPA (2003) Defensins from insects and plants interact with fungal glucosylceramides. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 279, 3900–3905.
Defensins from insects and plants interact with fungal glucosylceramides.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14604982PubMed |

Toksoz H, Rothrock CS, Kirkpatrick TL (2009) Efficacy of seed treatment chemicals for black root rot, caused by Thielaviopsis basicola, on cotton. Plant Disease 93, 354–362.
Efficacy of seed treatment chemicals for black root rot, caused by Thielaviopsis basicola, on cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXksVWjsb8%3D&md5=14376768ead910f4b6da4242526886b3CAS |

Tsao PH, Bricker JL (1966) Chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola as surviving propagules in natural soils. Phytopathology 56, 1012–1014.

USDA (2013a) Cotton: World Markets and Trade; Table 4: Area, Yield, and Production by Country. Foreign Agricultural Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Available at: www.fas.usda.gov/cotton/Current/

USDA (2013b) Fungal Databases. Foreign Agricultural Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Available at: http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/

Vilas Alves A, De Samblanx G, Terras F, Cammue B, Broekaert W (1994) Expression of functional Raphanus sativus antifungal protein in yeast. FEBS Letters 348, 228–232.
Expression of functional Raphanus sativus antifungal protein in yeast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Walker NR, Kirkpatrick TL, Rothrock CS (1998) Interaction between Meloidogyne incognita and Thielaviopsis basicola on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Journal of Nematology 30, 415–422.

Wang H, Davis RM (1997) Susceptibility of selected cotton cultivars to seedling disease pathogens and benefits of chemical seed treatments. Plant Disease 81, 1085–1088.
Susceptibility of selected cotton cultivars to seedling disease pathogens and benefits of chemical seed treatments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXmtlCqtLY%3D&md5=ccb858e9c7f919362023219398837551CAS |

Ware SB, Verstappen ECP, Breeden J, Cavaletto JR, Goodwin SB, Waalwijk C, Crous PW, Kema JHK (2007) Discovery of a functional Mycosphaerella teleomorph in the presumed asexual barley pathogen Septoria passerinii. Fungal Genetics and Biology 44, 389–397.
Discovery of a functional Mycosphaerella teleomorph in the presumed asexual barley pathogen Septoria passerinii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjs12gur4%3D&md5=27a5a221413d85ea7c423f943ac9f371CAS | 17267248PubMed |

Wheeler TA, Gannaway JR (2007) 1644 Identification of germplasm resistant to Thielaviopsis basicola in the USDA cotton germplasm collection. In ‘The 4th World Cotton Research Conference’. 10–14 September 2007, Lubbock, TX, USA. (International Cotton Advisory Committee: Washington, DC) Available at: http://icac.org/meetings/wcrc/wcrc4/presentations/data/papers/Paper1644.pdf

Wheeler TA, Gannaway JR, Kaufman HW, Dever JK, Mertley JC, Kealing JK (1997) Influence of tillage, seed quality, and fungicide seed treatments on cotton emergence and yield. Journal of Production Agriculture 10, 394–400.
Influence of tillage, seed quality, and fungicide seed treatments on cotton emergence and yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wheeler TA, Gannaway JR, Keating K (1999) Identification of resistance to Thielaviopsis basicola in diploid cotton. Plant Disease 83, 831–833.
Identification of resistance to Thielaviopsis basicola in diploid cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilson Wijeratnam RS, Hawejulige IGN, Abeyretne N (2005) Postharvest hot water treatment for the control of Thielaviopsis black rot of pineapple. Postharvest Biology and Technology 36, 323–327.
Postharvest hot water treatment for the control of Thielaviopsis black rot of pineapple.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yarwood CE (1974) Habitats of Thielaviopsis in California. The Plant Disease Reporter 58, 54–56.

Yarwood CE (1981) The occurrence of Chalara elegans. Mycologia 73, 524–530.
The occurrence of Chalara elegans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yi L, Xiao C, Ma G, Wu Q, Dou Y (2010) Biocontrol effect and inhibition activity of antagonistic actinomycetes strain TA21 against Thielaviopsis basicola. Chinese Journal of Biological Control 26, 186–192.

Zaki K, Misaghi IJ, Heydari A, Shatla MN (1998) Control of cotton seedling damping-off in the field by Burkholderia cepacia. Plant Disease 82, 291–293.
Control of cotton seedling damping-off in the field by Burkholderia cepacia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXhsVOqu7Y%3D&md5=61ca327ae431282ccc3c2d8ef3e296acCAS |