Going nowhere fast: a review of seed dispersal in eucalypts
Trevor H. Booth
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. Email: Trevor.Booth@csiro.au
Australian Journal of Botany 65(5) 401-410 https://doi.org/10.1071/BT17019
Submitted: 25 January 2017 Accepted: 6 July 2017 Published: 8 August 2017
Abstract
Eucalypt species have several features that make them particularly well suited for climate change studies. A key assumption is that they have very limited powers of dispersal. If this is correct, it means that climate change analyses to the end of this century can concentrate mainly on assessing whether or not eucalypt species are likely to be able to survive at their existing sites. A recent major climate change study of more than 600 eucalypt species for the period 2014–2085 has used 5 km as a usual dispersal limit for the period to 2085, with the possibility of rare long-distance events. The review presented here considers how far natural stands of eucalypt species are likely to be able to migrate in the period to 2085. It is the first review to consider eucalypt seed dispersal as its major focus. It draws on evidence from millions of years ago to the present, and from eucalypt stands in Australia and around the world. Although rare long-distance events cannot be entirely ruled out, it is concluded that the great bulk of the evidence available indicates that the most likely potential dispersal rate is equivalent to about 1–2 m per year, i.e. ~70–140 m in the period to 2085. Over decades, this is likely to occur as a series of stepwise events, associated with disturbances such as bushfires. However, limitations such as inadequate remnant eucalypt stands and extensive agricultural developments may reduce actual migration rates below even this modest potential.
Additional keywords: Angophora, climate change, Corymbia, Eucalyptus, species distribution model.
References
ABARES (2015) ‘Australia’s forests at a glance 2015.’ (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences: Canberra)Águas A, Ferreira A, Maia P, Fernandes PM, Roxo L, Keizer J, Silva JS, Rego FC, Moreira F (2014) Natural establishment of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. in burnt stands in Portugal. Forest Ecology and Management 323, 47–56.
| Natural establishment of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. in burnt stands in Portugal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis-McLane S (2008) Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evolutionary Applications 1, 95–111.
| Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andersen AN (1982) Seed removal by ants in the mallee of northwestern Victoria. In ‘Ant–plant interactions in Australia.’ (Ed. RC Buckley) pp. 31–44. (Dr W. Junk: The Hague)
Andersen AN (1987) Effects of seed predation by ants on seedling densities at a woodland site in SE Australia. Oikos 48, 171–174.
| Effects of seed predation by ants on seedling densities at a woodland site in SE Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andersen AN (1988) Immediate and longer-term effects of fire on seed predation by ants in sclerophyllous vegetation in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 13, 285–293.
| Immediate and longer-term effects of fire on seed predation by ants in sclerophyllous vegetation in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ashton DH (1979) Seed harvesting by ants in forests of Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. in central Victoria. Australian Journal of Ecology 4, 265–277.
| Seed harvesting by ants in forests of Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. in central Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ashton DH (1986) Viability of seeds of Eucalyptus obliqua and Leptospermum juniperinum from capsules subjected to a crown fire. Australian Forestry 49, 28–35.
| Viability of seeds of Eucalyptus obliqua and Leptospermum juniperinum from capsules subjected to a crown fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Austin MP, van Niel KP (2011) Impact of landscape predictors on climate change modelling of species distributions: a case study with Eucalyptus fastigata in southern New South Wales, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 38, 9–19.
| Impact of landscape predictors on climate change modelling of species distributions: a case study with Eucalyptus fastigata in southern New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barker DH, Loveys BR, Egerton JJG, Gorton G, Williams WE, Ball MC (2005) CO2 enrichment predisposes foliage of a eucalypt to freezing injury and reduces spring growth. Plant, Cell & Environment 28, 1506–1515.
| CO2 enrichment predisposes foliage of a eucalypt to freezing injury and reduces spring growth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barrows T, Stone J, Fifield L, Cresswell R (2001) Late Pleistocene glaciation of the Kosciuszko Massif, Snowy Mountains, Australia. Quaternary Research 55, 179–189.
| Late Pleistocene glaciation of the Kosciuszko Massif, Snowy Mountains, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhvV2iu7k%3D&md5=5a237734856e19d1d941650ce19019beCAS |
Battaglia M (1993) Seed germination physiology of Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T.Baker in Tasmania. Australian Journal of Botany 41, 119–136.
| Seed germination physiology of Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T.Baker in Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell DT, Williams JE (1997) Eucalypt ecophysiology. In ‘Eucalypt ecology’. (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 168–196. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW (1980) ‘Eucalyptus seed.’ (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Hyland BPM, Johnston RD, Kleinig D, Turner JD (1984) ‘Forest Trees of Australia.’ (Nelson & CSIRO: Melbourne)
Booth TH (2014) Modern tree colonisers from Australia into the rest of the world. In ‘Invasion biology and ecological theory’. (Eds HHT Prins, IJ Gordon) pp. 304–323. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Booth TH, Broadhurst LM, Pinkard E, Prober SM, Dillon SK, Bush D, Pinyopusarerk K, Doran JC, Ivkovich M, Young AG (2015) Native forests and climate change: lessons from eucalypts. Forest Ecology and Management 347, 18–29.
| Native forests and climate change: lessons from eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Broadhurst LM (2013) A genetic analysis of scattered yellow box (Eucalyptus melliodora A.Cunn. ex Schauer, Myrtaceae) and their restored cohorts. Biological Conservation 161, 48–57.
| A genetic analysis of scattered yellow box (Eucalyptus melliodora A.Cunn. ex Schauer, Myrtaceae) and their restored cohorts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burrows GE (2013) Buds, bushfires and resprouting in eucalypts. Australian Journal of Botany 61, 331–349.
| Buds, bushfires and resprouting in eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burrows DM, Burrows WH (1992) Seed production and litter fall in some eucalypt communities in central Queensland. Australian Journal of Botany 40, 389–403.
| Seed production and litter fall in some eucalypt communities in central Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burrows N, Gardiner G, Ward B, Robinson A (1990) Regeneration of Eucalyptus wandoo following fire. Australian Forestry 53, 248–258.
| Regeneration of Eucalyptus wandoo following fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Butcher PA, McDonald MW, Bell JC (2009) Congruence between environmental parameters, morphology and genetic structure in Australia’s most widely distributed eucalypt, Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Tree Genetics & Genomes 5, 189–210.
| Congruence between environmental parameters, morphology and genetic structure in Australia’s most widely distributed eucalypt, Eucalyptus camaldulensis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byrne M (2008) Evidence for multiple refugia at different time scales during Pleistocene climatic oscillations in southern Australia inferred from phylogeography. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 2576–2585.
| Evidence for multiple refugia at different time scales during Pleistocene climatic oscillations in southern Australia inferred from phylogeography.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byrne M, Hines B (2004) Phylogeographical analysis of cpDNA variation in Eucalyptus loxophleba (Myrtaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 52, 459–470.
| Phylogeographical analysis of cpDNA variation in Eucalyptus loxophleba (Myrtaceae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmsVChtLk%3D&md5=565817a718fa17b79ff9b798f35c93ddCAS |
Byrne M, Hopper SD (2008) Granite outcrops as ancient islands in old landscapes: evidence from the phylogeography and population genetics of Eucalyptus caesia (Myrtaceae) in Western Australia. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 93, 177–188.
| Granite outcrops as ancient islands in old landscapes: evidence from the phylogeography and population genetics of Eucalyptus caesia (Myrtaceae) in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byrne M, Elliott CP, Yates CJ, Coates DJ (2008) Maintenance of high pollen dispersal in Eucalyptus wandoo, a dominant tree of the fragmented agricultural region in Western Australia. Conservation Genetics 9, 97–105.
| Maintenance of high pollen dispersal in Eucalyptus wandoo, a dominant tree of the fragmented agricultural region in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
California State Parks System (1988) ‘Focussed environmental study: restoration of Angel Island natural areas affected by Eucalyptus.’ (California State Parks System: Sacramento, CA)
Calviño-Cancela M, Rubido-Bará M (2013) Invasive potential of Eucalyptus globulus: seed dispersal, seedling recruitment and survival in surrounding plantations. Forest Ecology and Management 305, 129–137.
| Invasive potential of Eucalyptus globulus: seed dispersal, seedling recruitment and survival in surrounding plantations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Close DC, Wilson SJ (2002) Provenance effects on pre-germination treatments for Eucalyptus regnans and E. delegatensis seed. Forest Ecology and Management 170, 299–305.
| Provenance effects on pre-germination treatments for Eucalyptus regnans and E. delegatensis seed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coates DJ, Sokolowski RE (1989) Geographic patterns of genetic diversity in karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F.Muell.). Australian Journal of Botany 37, 145–156.
| Geographic patterns of genetic diversity in karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F.Muell.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Colhoun EA, Hannan D, Kiernan K (1996) Late Wisconsin glaciation of Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 130, 33–45.
Cooper CE, Withers PC, Mawson PR, Johnstone R, Kirby T, Prince J, Bradshaw SD, Robertson H (2003) Characteristics of marri (Corymbia calophylla) fruits in relation to the foraging behaviour of the forest red-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorrynchus banksia naso). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 86, 139–142.
Cremer KW (1965) Emergence of Eucalyptus regnans seedlings from buried seed. Australian Forestry 29, 119–124.
| Emergence of Eucalyptus regnans seedlings from buried seed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cremer KW (1966) Dissemination of seed from Eucalyptus regnans. Australian Forestry 30, 33–37.
| Dissemination of seed from Eucalyptus regnans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cremer KW (1977) Distance of seed dispersal in eucalypts estimated from seed weights. Australian Forest Research 7, 225–228.
Cunningham TM (1960) The natural regeneration of Eucalyptus regnans. School of Forestry Bulletin No. 1. (Melbourne University: Melbourne)
Denham AJ, Vincent BE, Clarke PJ, Auld TD (2016) Responses of tree species to a severe fire indicate major structural change to Eucalyptus–Callitris forests. Plant Ecology 217, 617–629.
| Responses of tree species to a severe fire indicate major structural change to Eucalyptus–Callitris forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Department of the Environment and Water Resources (2007) ‘Australia’s native vegetation: a summary of Australia’s major vegetation groups.’ (Australian Government: Canberra)
Dorrough J, Moxham C (2005) Eucalypt establishment in agricultural landscapes and implications for landscape-scale restoration. Biological Conservation 123, 55–66.
| Eucalypt establishment in agricultural landscapes and implications for landscape-scale restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fernandes P, Antunes C, Pinho P, Máguas C, Correia O (2016) Natural regeneration of Pinus pinaster and Eucalyptus globulus from plantation into adjacent natural habitats. Forest Ecology and Management 378, 91–102.
| Natural regeneration of Pinus pinaster and Eucalyptus globulus from plantation into adjacent natural habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flores-Rentería L, Rymer PD, Riegler M (2017) Unpacking boxes: integration of molecular, morphological and ecological approaches reveals extensive patterns of reticulate evolution in box eucalypts. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 108, 70–87.
| Unpacking boxes: integration of molecular, morphological and ecological approaches reveals extensive patterns of reticulate evolution in box eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fork S, Woolfolk A, Akhavan A, van Dyke E, Murphy S, Candiloro B, Newberry T, Schreibman S, Salisbury J, Wasson K (2015) Biodiversity effects and rates of spread of non-native eucalypt woodlands in central California. Ecological Applications 25, 2306–2319.
| Biodiversity effects and rates of spread of non-native eucalypt woodlands in central California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Free RA (1951) Germination and emergence of eucalypt seed when sown at depth. Australian Forestry 15, 115–120.
| Germination and emergence of eucalypt seed when sown at depth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Freeman JS, Jackson HD, Steane DA, McKinnon GE, Dutkowski GW, Potts BM, Vaillancourt RE (2001) Chloroplast DNA phylogeography of Eucalyptus globulus. Australian Journal of Botany 49, 585–596.
| Chloroplast DNA phylogeography of Eucalyptus globulus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXptVemu7w%3D&md5=bb3a39a5d0a0144b47d8173e36118eb7CAS |
Gandolfo MA, Hermsen EJ, Zamaloa MC, Nixon KC, González CC, Wilf P, Cúneo NR (2011) Oldest known Eucalyptus macrofossils are from South America. PLoS One 6, e21084
| Oldest known Eucalyptus macrofossils are from South America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXot1yqtLg%3D&md5=0582449abd1c2819855ec99ccea36e9eCAS |
Gibson A, Bachelard EP (1989) Variations in seed and seedling responses to water stress in three provenances of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Annals of Forest Science 46, 388s–392s.
| Variations in seed and seedling responses to water stress in three provenances of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill AM (1981) Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fire. In ‘Fire and the Australian biota.’ (Eds AM Gill, RH Groves, R Noble) pp. 243–272. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra)
Gill AM (1997) Eucalypts and fire: interdependent or independent? In ‘Eucalypt ecology’. (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 151–1167. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
González-Orozco C, Pollock LJ, Thornhill AH, Mischler BD, Knerr N, Laffan SW, Miller JT, Roscuer DF, Faith DP, Nipperess DA, Kujala H, Linke S, Butt N, Kűlheim C, Crisp MD, Gruber B (2016) Phylogenetic approaches reveal biodiversity threats under climate change. Nature Climate Change 6, 1110–1114.
| Phylogenetic approaches reveal biodiversity threats under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Greene DF, Johnson EA (1994) Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees. Ecology 75, 642–647.
| Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Green K, Venn S (2012) Tree-limit ribbons in the Snowy Mountains, Australia: characterisation and recent seedling establishment. Arctic and Alpine Research 44, 180–187.
| Tree-limit ribbons in the Snowy Mountains, Australia: characterisation and recent seedling establishment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grose RJ (1957) A study of some factors associated with the natural regeneration of Eucalyptus delegatensis. Forestry Commission Victoria Bulletin No. 4 (Forestry Commission Victoria: Melbourne)
Grose RJ (1960) Effective seed supply for the natural regeneration of Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T.Baker syn. Eucalyptus gigantean Hook.f. Journal of the Australian Pulp and Paper Industry Association 13, 131–147.
Harris RJ, Standish RJ (2008) Ant dispersal and predation affects the availability of seeds for old-field recolonization in Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 91, 301–311.
Harwood C (1990) Technical aspects of seed collection, storage and handling. In ‘Sowing the seeds: direct seeding and natural regeneration conference’. (Ed. Anon.) pp. 20–23. (Greening Australia: Canberra)
Hay A (2016) The forest at the edge of time. In ‘The best Australian science writing 2016’. (Ed. J. Chandler) pp. 52–73. (University of New South Wales Press: Sydney)
Hill RS, Beer YK, Hill KE, Maciunas E, Tarran MA, Wainman CC (2016) Evolution of the eucalypts – an interpretation of the macrofossil record. Australian Journal of Botany 64, 600–608.
| Evolution of the eucalypts – an interpretation of the macrofossil record.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
House SM (1997) Reproductive biology of eucalypts. In ‘Eucalypt ecology’. (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 30–55. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Jacobs MR (1981) ‘Eucalypts for planting.’ (FAO: Rome)
Judd TS (1993) Seed survival in small myrtaceous capsules subjected to experimental heating. Oecologia 93, 576–581.
| Seed survival in small myrtaceous capsules subjected to experimental heating.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC1czot1egtQ%3D%3D&md5=1e261d16cf2721b24741da8fcdb7cc59CAS |
Keenan RJ (1986) Review of the shelterwood system and its potential for application in Tasmanian eucalypt forests. Australian Forestry 49, 226–235.
| Review of the shelterwood system and its potential for application in Tasmanian eucalypt forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Larcombe MJ, Silva JS, Vaillancourt RE, Potts BM (2013) Assessing the invasive potential of Eucalyptus globulus in Australia: quantification of wildling establishment from plantations. Biological Invasions 15, 2763–2781.
| Assessing the invasive potential of Eucalyptus globulus in Australia: quantification of wildling establishment from plantations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leonhardt SD, Baumann AM, Wallace HM, Brooks P, Schmitt T (2014) The chemistry of an unusual seed dispersal mutualism: bees use a complex set of olfactory cues to find their partner. Animal Behaviour 98, 41–51.
| The chemistry of an unusual seed dispersal mutualism: bees use a complex set of olfactory cues to find their partner.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loneragan OW (1979) ‘Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F.Muell) phenological studies in relation to reforestation.’ Bulletin no. 90. (Forests Department of Western Australia: Perth)
López M, Humara JM, Casares A, Majada J (2000) The effect of temperature and water stress on laboratory germination of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. seeds of different sizes. Annals of Forest Science 57, 245–250.
| The effect of temperature and water stress on laboratory germination of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. seeds of different sizes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lorentz KA, Minogue PJ (2015) Potential invasiveness of Eucalyptus species in Florida. Invasive Plant Science and Management 8, 90–97.
| Potential invasiveness of Eucalyptus species in Florida.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macphail M, Thornhill AH (2016) How old are the eucalypts? A review of the microfossil and phylogenetic evidence. Australian Journal of Botany
| How old are the eucalypts? A review of the microfossil and phylogenetic evidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Markgraf V, McGlone M, Hope G (1995) Neogene paleoclimatic change in southern temperate ecosystems – a southern perspective. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10, 143–147.
| Neogene paleoclimatic change in southern temperate ecosystems – a southern perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7itFajug%3D%3D&md5=a867688f927b90f99a954908e2c3f73aCAS |
May FE, Ash JE (1990) An assessment of the allelopathic potential of Eucalyptus. Australian Journal of Botany 38, 245–254.
| An assessment of the allelopathic potential of Eucalyptus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McBride JR, Sugihara N, Amme D (1988) The effects of Eucalyptus establishment on native plant communities In ‘Focused environmental study: restoration of Angel Island natural areas affected by Eucalyptus’. (Ed. D Boyd) pp. 43–85. (California Department of Parks and Recreation: Sacramento, CA)
McKinnon GE, Vaillancourt RE, Jackson HD, Potts BM (2001) Chloroplast sharing in Tasmanian eucalypts. Evolution 55, 703–711.
| Chloroplast sharing in Tasmanian eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXktleqtLs%3D&md5=902cd44d367872fdc57422a30e9a27e4CAS |
McKinnon GE, Jordan GJ, Vaillancourt RE, Steane DA, Potts BM (2004) Glacial refugia and reticulate evolution: the case for Tasmanian eucalypts. Proceedings of the Transactions of the Royal Society London B 359, 275–284.
| Glacial refugia and reticulate evolution: the case for Tasmanian eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mercer GN, Gill AM, Weber RO (1994) A time-dependent model of fire impact on seed survival in woody fruits. Australian Journal of Botany 42, 71–81.
| A time-dependent model of fire impact on seed survival in woody fruits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mwanza EJM, Kellas JD (1987) Identification of the fungi associated with damping-off in the regeneration of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. radiata in a central Victorian forest. European Journal of Forest Pathology 17, 237–245.
| Identification of the fungi associated with damping-off in the regeneration of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. radiata in a central Victorian forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nevill PG, Bossinger G, Ades PK (2010) Phylogeography of the world’s tallest angiosperm, Eucalyptus regnans: evidence for multiple isolated Quaternary refugia. Journal of Biogeography 37, 179–192.
| Phylogeography of the world’s tallest angiosperm, Eucalyptus regnans: evidence for multiple isolated Quaternary refugia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nicolle D (2006) A classification and census of regenerative strategies in the eucalypts (Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus – Myrtaceae), with special reference to the obligate seeders. Australian Journal of Botany 54, 391–407.
| A classification and census of regenerative strategies in the eucalypts (Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus – Myrtaceae), with special reference to the obligate seeders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Dowd DJ, Gill AM (1984) Predator satiation and site alteration following fire: mass repdoduction of alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) in southeastern Australia. Ecology 65, 1052–1066.
| Predator satiation and site alteration following fire: mass repdoduction of alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Potts BM, Wiltshire RJE (1997) Eucalypt genetics and genecology. In ‘Eucalypt ecology’. (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 56–91. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Poynton RJ (1979) ‘Tree planting in southern Africa. Vol. 2. The eucalypts.’ (Department of Forestry, Republic of South Africa: Pretoria, South Africa)
Prober SM, Potts BM, Bailey T, Byrne M, Dillon S, Harrison PA, Hoffman AA, Jordan R, McLean EH, Steane DA, Stock WD, Vaillancourt RE (2016) Climate adaptation and ecological restoration in eucalypts. The Royal Society of Victoria 128, 40–53.
| Climate adaptation and ecological restoration in eucalypts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rathbone DA, McKinnon GE, Potts BM, Steane DA, Vaillancourt RE (2007) Microsatellite and cpDNA variation in island and mainland populations of a regionally rare eucalypt, Eucalyptus perriniana (Myrtaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 55, 513–520.
| Microsatellite and cpDNA variation in island and mainland populations of a regionally rare eucalypt, Eucalyptus perriniana (Myrtaceae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXpt1SltbY%3D&md5=b5c755718cd63bcbc2833da92a747cfaCAS |
Rejmánek M, Richardson DM (2011) Eucalypts. In ‘Encyclopedia of invasive plants’. (Eds D Simberloff, M Rejmánek) pp. 203–209. (University of California Press: Berkeley, CA)
Ross C, Brack C (2015) Eucalyptus viminalis dieback in the Monaro region, NSW. Australian Forestry 78, 243–253.
| Eucalyptus viminalis dieback in the Monaro region, NSW.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ruthrof KX, Loneragan WA, Yates CJ (2003) Comparative population dynamics of Eucalyptus cladocalyx in its native habitat and as an invasive species in an urban bushland in south-western Australia. Diversity & Distributions 9, 469–483.
| Comparative population dynamics of Eucalyptus cladocalyx in its native habitat and as an invasive species in an urban bushland in south-western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schütz W, Milberg P, Lamont BB (2002) Germination requirements and seedling responses to water availability and soil type in four eucalypt species. Acta Oecologica 23, 23–30.
| Germination requirements and seedling responses to water availability and soil type in four eucalypt species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Standish RJ, Cramer VA, Wild SL, Hobbs RJ (2007) Seed dispersal and recruitment limitation are barriers to native colonization of old-fields in western Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 44, 435–445.
| Seed dispersal and recruitment limitation are barriers to native colonization of old-fields in western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stoneman GL (1994) Ecology and physiology of establishment of eucalypt seedlings from seed: a review. Australian Forestry 57, 11–29.
| Ecology and physiology of establishment of eucalypt seedlings from seed: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vaillancourt RE, Boomsma DB, Nicolle D (2001) A disjunct population of Eucalyptus globulus subsp. bicostata from South Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 126, 65–68.
Vittoz P, Engler R (2007) Seed dispersal distances: a typology based on dispersal modes and plant traits. Botanica Helvetica 117, 109–124.
| Seed dispersal distances: a typology based on dispersal modes and plant traits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wallace HM, Trueman SJ (1995) Dispersal of Eucalyptus torelliana seeds by the resin-collecting sting-less bee, Trigona carbonaria. Oecologia 104, 12–16.
| Dispersal of Eucalyptus torelliana seeds by the resin-collecting sting-less bee, Trigona carbonaria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC1cznsFCitA%3D%3D&md5=0e8cac358efb65c2c55776ae0214db5fCAS |
Wellington AB (1989) Seedling regeneration and the population dynamics of eucalypts. In ‘Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: mallee ecosystems and their management’. (Eds JC Noble, RA Bradstock) pp. 155–167. (CSIRO: Canberra)
Wellington AB, Noble IR (1985) Seed dynamics and factors affecting recruitment of the mallee Eucalyptus incrassata in semi-arid, south-eastern Australia. Journal of Ecology 73, 657–666.
| Seed dynamics and factors affecting recruitment of the mallee Eucalyptus incrassata in semi-arid, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams JE, Brooker MIH (1997) Eucalypts: an introduction. In ‘Eucalypt ecology’. (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 1–15. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Williams RJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Enright NJ, Gill AM, Liedloff AC, Lucas C, Whelan RJ, Andersen AN, Bowman DJMS, Clarke PJ, Cook GD, Hennessy KJ, York A (2009) Interactions between climate change, fire regimes and biodiversity in Australia: a preliminary assessment. Report to the Department of Climate Change and Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra.
Wolf KM, DiTomaso JM (2016) Management of blue gum eucalyptus in California requires region-specific consideration. California Agriculture 70, 39–47.
| Management of blue gum eucalyptus in California requires region-specific consideration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yates CJ, Hobbs RJ (1997) Temperate eucalypt woodlands: a review of their status, processes threatening their persistence and techniques for restoration. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 949–973.
| Temperate eucalypt woodlands: a review of their status, processes threatening their persistence and techniques for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yates CJ, Taplin RH, Hobbs RJ, Bell RW (1995) Factors limiting the recruitment of Eucalyptus salmonophloia in remnant woodlands II. Post dispersal seed predation and soil seed reserves. Australian Journal of Botany 43, 145–155.
| Factors limiting the recruitment of Eucalyptus salmonophloia in remnant woodlands II. Post dispersal seed predation and soil seed reserves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
