Changes in forest structure over 60 years: tree densities continue to increase in the Pilliga forests, New South Wales, Australia
Robyn K. Whipp A C , Ian D. Lunt A , Peter G. Spooner A and Ross A. Bradstock B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789 Albury, NSW 2640, Australia.
B Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires, Institute for Conservation Biology and Law, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: rkwhipp@gmail.com
Australian Journal of Botany 60(1) 1-8 https://doi.org/10.1071/BT11191
Submitted: 23 July 2011 Accepted: 6 December 2011 Published: 3 February 2012
Abstract
Studies of long-term vegetation changes are critical for enhancing our understanding of successional dynamics in natural ecosystems. By comparing forest inventory data from the 1940s against field data from 2005, we document changes in stand structure over 60 years in forests co-dominated by Callitris glaucophylla J.Thompson & L.Johnson, Allocasuarina luehmannii (R.Baker) L.Johnson and Eucalyptus crebra F.Muell., in central Pilliga, New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Sampling was stratified across two forest types and across a 1951 wildfire boundary, to assess the effects of initial stand structure and early disturbance on stand dynamics. Stems in the size range tallied in the 1940s (>8.9 cm DBH for Callitris and >11.4 cm for Allocasuarina and Eucalyptus) of each genus increased about three-fold in density and about four-fold in basal area over 60 years, with similar trends in both forest types and fire zones. On average, there were 3638 stems ha–1 in 2010, of which 86% were small Allocasuarina and Callitris (<11.4-cm and <8.9-cm diameter at breast height, DBH, respectively). These results illustrate a continuation of forest encroachment that was initially documented in the late 1800s. However, increases in Allocasuarina have received little attention compared with Callitris recruitment. In the absence of disturbance, ongoing increases in stand stocking may be expected.
References
Allen MR (1998) ‘Forest history projects for State Forests of New South Wales. Case studies of three cypress pine forests on the Lachlan and Bogan River catchments, Forbes Forestry District on Back Yamma, Euglo South and Strahorn State Forests.’ (State Forests of New South Wales: Sydney)Baur G (1988) Notes on the silviculture of major NSW forest types: No. 10. Cypress pine. (Forestry Commission of NSW: Sydney)
Benson JS, Redpath PA (1997) The nature of pre-European native vegetation in south-eastern Australia: a critique of Ryan, D. G., Ryan, J. R and Starr, B. J. (1995) The Australian landscape – observations of explorers and early settlers. Cunninghamia 5, 285–328.
Binns D, Beckers D, Hart D, Libbis B (2001) Floristic patterns in the Pilliga. In ‘Perfumed pineries: environmental history of Australia’s Callitris forests’. (Ed. J Dargavel) pp. 104–110. (Australian National University: Canberra)
Brook BW, Bowman DMJS (2006) Postcards from the past: charting the landscape-scale conversion of tropical Australian savanna to closed forest during the 20th century. Landscape Ecology 21, 1253–1266.
| Postcards from the past: charting the landscape-scale conversion of tropical Australian savanna to closed forest during the 20th century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brookhouse P, Nicholson D, Green DG, Lord B (1999) Large Pilliga fires and the development of fire management and fire suppression strategies. In ‘Bushfire99 conference proceedings. Australian Bushfire Conference, Albury, July 1999’. (Ed. I Lunt)
Chesterfield CJ, Parsons RF (1985) Regeneration of three tree species in arid south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 33, 715–732.
| Regeneration of three tree species in arid south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohn JS, Lunt ID, Ross KA, Bradstock RA (2011) How do slow-growing, fire-sensitive conifers survive in flammable eucalypt woodlands? Journal of Vegetation Science 22, 425–435.
| How do slow-growing, fire-sensitive conifers survive in flammable eucalypt woodlands?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cottenie K, De Meester L (2003) Comment to Oksanen (2001): reconciling Oksanen (2001) and Hurlbert (1984). Oikos 100, 394–396.
| Comment to Oksanen (2001): reconciling Oksanen (2001) and Hurlbert (1984).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Curby P (1997) ‘Forest history project for State Forests of New South Wales: Narrandera study on Buckingbong, Gillenbah and Matong State Forests.’ (State Forests of New South Wales: Sydney)
Fensham RJ (2008) Leichhardt’s maps: 100 years of change in vegetation structure in inland Queensland. Journal of Biogeography 35, 141–156.
Fensham RJ, Fairfax RJ, Archer SR (2005) Rainfall, land use and woody vegetation cover change in semi-arid Australian savanna. Journal of Ecology 93, 596–606.
| Rainfall, land use and woody vegetation cover change in semi-arid Australian savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fensham RJ, Fairfax RJ, Ward DP (2009) Drought-induced tree death in savanna. Global Change Biology 15, 380–387.
| Drought-induced tree death in savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forestry Commission of NSW (1952) Report of the Forestry Commission of New South Wales for the year ended 30th June, 1952. Forestry Commission of NSW, Sydney.
Forestry Commission of NSW (1986) ‘Management plan for Pilliga Management Area.’ (Forestry Commission of New South Wales: Sydney)
Gill AM (1997) Eucalypts and fires: interdependent or independent? In ‘Eucalypt ecology: individuals to ecosystems’. (Eds J Williams, J Woinarski) pp. 151–167. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Griffiths T (2002) How many trees make a forest? Cultural debates about vegetation change in Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 50, 375–389.
| How many trees make a forest? Cultural debates about vegetation change in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [review]
Horne R (1990a) Early espacement of wheatfield white cypress pine regeneration: the effect on secondary regeneration, limb size, and stand merchantability. Australian Forestry 53, 160–167.
Horne R (1990b) Stand height response following variable spacing of wheatfield white cypress pine regeneration in New South Wales. Australian Forestry 53, 47–54.
Insightful Corporation (2007) ‘S-Plus 8.0 for Windows Enterprise Developer’. (Insightful Corporation: Seattle)
Keith D (2004) ‘Ocean shores to desert dunes. The native vegetation of New South Wales and the ACT.’ (Department of Environment and Conservation: Sydney)
Kirkpatrick JB (2004) Vegetation change in an urban grassy woodland 1974–2000. Australian Journal of Botany 52, 597–608.
| Vegetation change in an urban grassy woodland 1974–2000.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kutner MH, Nachtsheim CJ, Neter J, Li W (2005) ‘Applied linear statistical models.’ (McGraw-Hill Irwin: New York)
Lacey CJ (1972) Factors influencing occurrence of cypress pine regeneration in New South Wales: Technical Report No. 21. Forestry Commission of NSW, Sydney.
Lacey CJ (1973) Silvicultural characteristics of white cypress pine: research note no. 26. Forestry Commission of NSW, Sydney.
Lindsay AD (1946) Pilliga management survey: instructions for forest estimators. Forestry Commission of NSW (unpublished), Sydney.
Lindsay AD (1967) ‘Forest types of the New South Wales cypress pine zone.’ (Forestry Commission of New South Wales: Sydney)
Lunt ID (1998) Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae) invasion of an unburnt coastal woodland at Ocean Grove, Victoria: structural changes 1971–1996. Australian Journal of Botany 46, 649–656.
| Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae) invasion of an unburnt coastal woodland at Ocean Grove, Victoria: structural changes 1971–1996.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lunt ID (2002) Grazed, burnt and cleared: how ecologists have studied century-scale vegetation changes in Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 50, 391–407.
| Grazed, burnt and cleared: how ecologists have studied century-scale vegetation changes in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lunt ID, Spooner PG (2005) Using historical ecology to understand patterns of biodiversity in fragmented agricultural landscapes. Journal of Biogeography 32, 1859–1873.
| Using historical ecology to understand patterns of biodiversity in fragmented agricultural landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lunt ID, Jones N, Spooner PG, Petrow M (2006) Effects of European colonisation on indigenous systems: post-settlement changes in tree stand structures of Eucalyptus-Callitris woodlands in central New South Wales, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 33, 1102–1115.
| Effects of European colonisation on indigenous systems: post-settlement changes in tree stand structures of Eucalyptus-Callitris woodlands in central New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mac Nally R, Bennett AF, Thomson JR, Radford JQ, Unmack G, Horrocks G, Vesk PA (2009) Collapse of an avifauna: climate change appears to exacerbate habitat loss and degradation. Diversity & Distributions 15, 720–730.
| Collapse of an avifauna: climate change appears to exacerbate habitat loss and degradation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McDougall KL (2003) Aerial photographic interpretation of vegetation changes on the Bogong High Plains, Victoria, between 1936 and 1980. Australian Journal of Botany 51, 251–256.
| Aerial photographic interpretation of vegetation changes on the Bogong High Plains, Victoria, between 1936 and 1980.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mitchell PB (1991) Historical perspectives on some vegetation and soil changes in semi-arid New South Wales. Vegetatio 91, 169–182.
| Historical perspectives on some vegetation and soil changes in semi-arid New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morcom LA, Westbrooke ME (1998) The pre-settlement vegetation of the western and central Wimmera Plains of Victoria, Australia. Australian Geographical Studies 36, 273–288.
| The pre-settlement vegetation of the western and central Wimmera Plains of Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murdoch FA (2005) Restoration ecology in the semi-arid woodlands of north-west Victoria. PhD Thesis, University of Ballarat, Vic.
Noble JC (1997) ‘The delicate and noxious scrub: CSIRO studies on native tree and shrub proliferation in the semi-arid woodlands of Eastern Australia.’ (CSIRO: Canberra)
Norris EH, Mitchell PB, Hart DM (1991) Vegetation changes in the Pilliga forests: a preliminary evaluation of the evidence. Vegetatio 91, 209–218.
| Vegetation changes in the Pilliga forests: a preliminary evaluation of the evidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
NSW Parks and Wildlife Service Western Directorate (2000) ‘Preliminary overview of the Brigalow Belt South Bioregion (Stage 1).’ (NSW Parks and Wildlife Service: Sydney)
Oksanen L (2001) Logic of experiments in ecology: is pseudoreplication a pseudoissue? Oikos 94, 27–38.
| Logic of experiments in ecology: is pseudoreplication a pseudoissue?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prior LD, McCaw WL, Grierson PF, Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS (2011) Population structures of the widespread Australian conifer Callitris columellaris are a bio-indicator of continental environmental change. Forest Ecology and Management 262, 252–262.
| Population structures of the widespread Australian conifer Callitris columellaris are a bio-indicator of continental environmental change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rolls E (1981) ‘A million wild acres: 200 years of man and an Australian forest.’ (Nelson: Melbourne)
Rolls E (2000) The end, or a new beginning? In ‘Environmental history and policy: still settling Australia’. (Ed. S Dovers) pp. 22–46. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne)
Ross KA, Bedward M, Ellis MV, Deane A, Simpson CC, Bradstock RA (2008) Modelling the dynamics of white cypress pine Callitris glaucophylla woodlands in inland south-eastern Australia. Ecological Modelling 211, 11–24.
| Modelling the dynamics of white cypress pine Callitris glaucophylla woodlands in inland south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Specht RL, Specht A (1999) ‘Australian plant communities: dynamics of structure, growth and biodiversity.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne)
SPSS Inc (2008) ‘SPSS 16.0 for Windows, release 16.0.2.’ (SPSS Inc.: Chicago)
State Forests of New South Wales, Curby P (2000) ‘Disturbance history mapping project report: Brigalow Belt South.’ (Resource and Conservation Division, Department of Urban Affairs and Planning: Sydney)
Swetnam TW, Allen CD, Betancourt JL (1999) Applied historical ecology: using the past to manage for the future. Ecological Applications 9, 1189–1206.
| Applied historical ecology: using the past to manage for the future.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thompson WA, Eldridge DJ (2005) White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla): a review of its roles in landscape and ecological processes in eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 53, 555–570.
| White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla): a review of its roles in landscape and ecological processes in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van Kempen E (1997) ‘A history of the Pilliga cypress pine forests.’ (State Forests of New South Wales: Sydney)
Vesk PA, Dorrough JW (2006) Getting trees on farms the easy way? Lessons from a model of eucalypt regeneration on pastures. Australian Journal of Botany 54, 509–519.
| Getting trees on farms the easy way? Lessons from a model of eucalypt regeneration on pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wellington AB, Noble IR (1985) Post-fire recruitment and mortality in a population of the mallee Eucalyptus incrassata in semi-arid, south-eastern Australia. Journal of Ecology 73, 645–656.
| Post-fire recruitment and mortality in a population of the mallee Eucalyptus incrassata in semi-arid, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westbrooke M, Florentine S (2005) Rainfall-driven episodic flood events: are they a major factor in moulding New South Wales arid land vegetation patterns? The Australian Geographer 36, 171–181.
| Rainfall-driven episodic flood events: are they a major factor in moulding New South Wales arid land vegetation patterns?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whipp RK, Lunt ID, Deane A, Spooner PG (2009) Historical forest survey data from Eucalyptus-Callitris forests: a valuable resource for long-term vegetation studies. Australian Journal of Botany 57, 541–555.
| Historical forest survey data from Eucalyptus-Callitris forests: a valuable resource for long-term vegetation studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woinarski JCZ, Catterall CP (2004) Historical changes in the bird fauna at Coomooboolaroo, northeastern Australia, from the early years of pastoral settlement (1873 to 1999). Biological Conservation 116, 379–401.
| Historical changes in the bird fauna at Coomooboolaroo, northeastern Australia, from the early years of pastoral settlement (1873 to 1999).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woinarski JCZ, McCosker JC, Gordon G, Lawrie B, James C, Augusteyn J, Slater L, Danvers T (2006) Monitoring change in the vertebrate fauna of central Queensland, Australia, over a period of broad-scale vegetation clearance, 1973–2002. Wildlife Research 33, 263–274.
| Monitoring change in the vertebrate fauna of central Queensland, Australia, over a period of broad-scale vegetation clearance, 1973–2002.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
