Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > AN > AN24040
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contents Vol 64(12)

Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon mitigation methods in probiotic-fed broiler production

H. W. Chin https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9481-777X A , T. P. Tee https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4274-9178 A * and N. P. Tan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1400-0154 B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia.

B Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia.

* Correspondence to: ttpoy@upm.edu.my

Handling Editor: Kris Angkanaporn

Animal Production Science 64, AN24040 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN24040
Submitted: 2 February 2024  Accepted: 15 July 2024  Published: 2 August 2024

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing

Abstract

Context

Livestock production contributes significantly to global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Probiotic-fed broiler production has been shown to reduce greenhouse emissions in other nations significantly, however, outcomes in Malaysia are unknown.

Aims

This study assesses the total greenhouse emissions of probiotic-fed broiler production from cradle to farm-gate using an accredited Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tool, Greenhouse Accounting Framework (GAF). It determines the hotspot of greenhouse emissions and emission intensity of the farm in kg CO2-eq/kg liveweight. Three types of mitigation methods, i.e. selling untreated manure, composting, and conversion into biochar, were compared to identify their effectiveness.

Methods

The research involves three broiler houses with one production cycle. Fifty-four gas samples and 90 poultry litter samples were collected throughout the production cycle and analysed for the targeted gases – i.e. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen and volatile solid composition. Analysis results were used to estimate total greenhouse emissions from the farm using the LCA-GAF model. The mitigation efficiency achieved by selling untreated manure, composting, and biochar production is assessed by estimating the carbon stock mass.

Key results

A new LCA model based on probiotic-fed broiler production was generated, specifically using data obtained from the experiment. The experimental results indicated that energy consumption, i.e. electricity and fuel, have the highest greenhouse emissions (44%), followed by feed production with 40% of the total 53.51 t CO2-eq/house/cycle in the probiotic-fed broiler farm. The emissions intensity of the farm is 1.57 kg CO2-eq/kg liveweight. Estimates of the mitigation efficiency were compared among untreated manure, biochar, and compost.

Conclusions

Energy consumption, particularly electricity and fuel, contributed the highest greenhouse emissions in the probiotic-fed broiler production. The strategy of selling untreated poultry litter was the most effective carbon mitigation method. However, due to its adverse environmental and human health impacts, converting poultry litter into biochar is the preferable mitigation option.

Implications

This study is profound for the poultry industry and environmental sustainability. It highlights the crucial role of energy consumption in greenhouse emissions from the probiotic-fed broiler farm, and the necessity of addressing the environmental impacts. Implementing sustainable agricultural practices could lead to more ecological poultry production, contributing to global efforts in climate change mitigation.

Keywords: biochar, emission intensity, greenhouse gas emission, life cycle assessment, Malaysia, mitigation, poultry manure, probiotic-fed broiler.

References

Abdurofi I, Ismail MM, Kamal HAW, Gabdo BH (2017) Economic analysis of broiler production in Peninsular Malaysia. International Food Research Journal 24, 1387-1392.
| Google Scholar |

Abhishek K, Shrivastava A, Vimal V, Gupta AK, Bhujbal SK, Biswas JK, Singh L, Ghosh P, Pandey A, Sharma P, Kumar M (2022) Biochar application for greenhouse gas mitigation, contaminants immobilization and soil fertility enhancement: a state-of-the-art review. Science of The Total Environment 853, 158562.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Ahmad SF, Tamboli P, Chaudhary R, Kerketta S, Attupuram NM, Raju DT, Kumar GB (2020) Climate-smart livestock farming in India: addressing issues and challenges. In ‘Climate change and Indian agriculture: challenges and adaptation strategies’. (Eds C Srinivasarao, T Srinivas, RVS Rao, N Srinivasarao, SS Vinayagam, P Krishnan) pp. 397–429. (ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management: Hyderabad)

Akamati K, Laliotis GP, Bizelis I (2023) Greenhouse gas emissions of the poultry sector in greece and mitigation potential strategies. Gases 3, 47-56.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Almutairi AA, Ahmad M, Rafique MI, Al-Wabel MI (2023) Variations in composition and stability of biochars derived from different feedstock types at varying pyrolysis temperature. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22, 25-34.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Arrieta EM, Cuchietti A, Cabrol D, González AD (2018) Greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiencies for soybeans and maize cultivated in different agronomic zones: a case study of Argentina. Science of The Total Environment 625, 199-208.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Arsène MMJ, Davares AKL, Andreevna SL, Vladimirovich EA, Carime BZ, Marouf R, Khelifi I (2021) The use of probiotics in animal feeding for safe production and as potential alternatives to antibiotics. Veterinary World 14, 319-328.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Augère-Granier M-L (2019) The EU poultry meat and egg sector: main features, challenges and prospects: in-depth analysis. European Parliamentary Research Service. Available at https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1337506/the-eu-poultry-meat-and-egg-sector/1945405/

Bartram D, Short MD, Ebie Y, Farkaš J, Gueguen C, Peters GM, Karthik M, Zanzottera NM (2019) Wastewater treatment and discharge. In ‘2019 refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories’. (Eds E Calvo Buendia, K Tanabe, A Kranjc, J Baasansuren, M Fukuda, S Ngarize, A Osako, Y Pyrozhenko, P Shermanau, S Federici) pp. 6.1–6.72. (IPCC: Switzerland)

Berlin J (2002) Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of Swedish semi-hard cheese. International Dairy Journal 12, 939-953.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bist RB, Subedi S, Chai L, Yang X (2023) Ammonia emissions, impacts, and mitigation strategies for poultry production: a critical review. Journal of Environmental Management 328, 116919.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Boontiam W, Shin Y, Choi HL, Kumari P (2016) Assessment of the contribution of poultry and pig production to greenhouse gas emissions in South Korea over the last 10 years (2005 through 2014). Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 29, 1805-1811.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Brimmer R, Floren J, Gunderson L, Hicks K, Hoerner T, Lessl J, Meinen RJ, Miller RO, Mowrer J, Porter J, Spargo JT, Thayer B, Vocasek F, Wilson ML (2022) ‘Recommended methods of manure analysis.’ 2nd edn. (University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing: Minneapolis)

Brouček J, Čermák B (2015) Emission of harmful gases from poultry farms and possibilities of their reduction. Ekologia 34, 89-100.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brown RC (2021) The role of pyrolysis and gasification in a carbon negative economy. Processes 9, 882.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Buss W, Wurzer C, Manning DAC, Rohling EJ, Borevitz J, Mašek O (2022) Mineral-enriched biochar delivers enhanced nutrient recovery and carbon dioxide removal. Communications Earth & Environment 3, 67.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Calvet S, Estellés F, Cambra-López M, Torres AG, Van den Weghe HFA (2011) The influence of broiler activity, growth rate, and litter on carbon dioxide balances for the determination of ventilation flow rates in broiler production. Poultry Science 90, 2449-2458.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Cao Y, Wang X, Liu L, Velthof G, Misselbrook T, Bai Z, Ma L (2020) Acidification of manure reduces gaseous emissions and nutrient losses from subsequent composting process. Journal of Environmental Management 264, 110454.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cech R, Leisch F, Zaller JG (2022) Pesticide use and associated greenhouse gas emissions in sugar beet, apples, and viticulture in Austria from 2000 to 2019. Agriculture 12, 879.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chan YJ, Chong MF, Law CL, Hassell DG (2009) A review on anaerobic–aerobic treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater. Chemical Engineering Journal 155, 1-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chen P, Zheng X, Cheng W (2022) Biochar combined with ferrous sulfate reduces nitrogen and carbon losses during agricultural waste composting and enhances microbial diversity. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 162, 531-542.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chen Y, Zhang Y, Shi X, Shi E, Zhao T, Zhang Y, Xu L (2023) The contribution of earthworms to carbon mineralization during vermicomposting of maize stover and cow dung. Bioresource Technology 368, 128283.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Chmielowiec-Korzeniowska A, Tymczyna L, Wlazło Ł, Trawińska B, Ossowski M (2022) Emissions of gaseous pollutants from pig farms and methods for their reduction – a review. Annals of Animal Science 22, 89-107.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Collett M, Harmon M, Lehmann J, Shaw CH, Shirato Y, Woolf D, McRoberts RE (2019) Generic methodologies applicable to multiple land-use categories. In ‘2019 refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories’. (Eds E Calvo Buendia, K Tanabe, A Kranjc, J Baasansuren, M Fukuda, S Ngarize, A Osako, Y Pyrozhenko, P Shermanau, S Federici) pp. 2.1–2.96. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Switzerland)

Del Nery V, de Nardi IR, Damianovic MHRZ, Pozzi E, Amorim AKB, Zaiat M (2007) Long-term operating performance of a poultry slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plant. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 50, 102-114.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dróżdż D, Wystalska K, Malińska K, Grosser A, Grobelak A, Kacprzak M (2020) Management of poultry manure in Poland – current state and future perspectives. Journal of Environmental Management 264, 110327.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Duarte da Silva Lima N, de Alencar Nääs I, Garcia RG, Jorge de Moura D (2019) Environmental impact of Brazilian broiler production process: evaluation using life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production 237, 117752.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

European Parliamentary Research Service (2019) The EU poultry meat and egg sector: main features, challenges and prospects: in-depth analysis. Available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_IDA(2019)644195

FAO (2019) Five practical actions towards low-carbon livestock. Food and Agriculture Organization. Available at https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=ca7089en#:~:text=The%20following%20five%20practical%20actions,based%20solutions%20to%20ramp%20up

FAO (2020) Biodiversity and the livestock sector – guidelines for quantitative assessment. Food and Agriculture Organization. Available at https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9295en

FAO (2022) Greenhouse gas emissions from agrifood systems Global, regional and country trends, 2000–2020, FAOSTAT Analytical Brief 50. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Available at https://www.fao.org/3/cc2672en/cc2672en.pdf

FAO (2023) Pathways towards lower emissions – a global assessment of the greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation options from livestock agrifood systems. Food and Agriculture Organization. Available at https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9029en

Fawzy S, Osman AI, Mehta N, Moran D, Al-Muhtaseb AH, Rooney DW (2022) Atmospheric carbon removal via industrial biochar systems: a techno-economic-environmental study. Journal of Cleaner Production 371, 133660.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gavrilova O, Leip A, Dong H., MacDonald JD, Gomez Bravo CA, Amon B, Barahona Rosales R, del Prado A, de Lima MA, Oyhantçabal W, van der Weerden TJ, Widiawati Y (2019) Emissions from livestock and manure management. In ‘2019 refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories’. (Eds E Calvo Buendia, K Tanabe, A Kranjc, J Baasansuren, M Fukuda, S Ngarize, A Osako, Y Pyrozhenko, P Shermanau, S Federici) pp. 10.1–10.207. (IPCC: Switzerland)

Gerber P, Steinfeld H, Henderson B, Mottet A, Opio C, Dijkman J, Falcucci A, Tempio G (2013a) Tackling climate change through livestock – a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Available at https://www.fao.org/3/i3437e/i3437e00.htm

Gerber P, Mottet A, Tempio G, Falcucci A, Opio C, Vellinga T, Henderson B, Steinfeld H (2013b) Greenhouse gas emissions from pig and chicken supply chains – a global life cycle assessment. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Available at https://www.fao.org/3/i3460e/i3460e00.htm

González-García S, Gomez-Fernández Z, Dias AC, Feijoo G, Moreira MT, Arroja L (2014) Life cycle assessment of broiler chicken production: a Portuguese case study. Journal of Cleaner Production 74, 125-134.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Goslee K, Walker SM, Grais A, Murray L, Casarim F, Brown S (2015) ‘LEAF technical guidance series: Module C-CS: Calculations for estimating carbon stocks.’ (Winrock International: USA)

Grassauer F, Arulnathan V, Pelletier N (2023) Towards a net-zero greenhouse gas emission egg industry: a review of relevant mitigation technologies and strategies, current emission reduction potential, and future research needs. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 181, 113322.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Grossi G, Goglio P, Vitali A, Williams AG (2019) Livestock and climate change: impact of livestock on climate and mitigation strategies. Animal Frontiers 9, 69-76.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gržinić G, Piotrowicz-Cieślak A, Klimkowicz-Pawlas A, Górny RL, Ławniczek-Wałczyk A, Piechowicz L, Olkowska E, Potrykus M, Tankiewicz M, Krupka M, Siebielec G, Wolska L (2023) Intensive poultry farming: a review of the impact on the environment and human health. Science of The Total Environment 858, 160014.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gupta SK, Chaudhari SK, Sharma PC (2019) ‘Handbook of saline and alkali soils diagnosis reclamation and management.’ (Scientific Publishers: Jodhpur)

Haas G, Wetterich F, Köpke U (2001) Comparing intensive, extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 83, 43-53.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hao X, Chang C, Larney FJ, Travis GR (2001) Greenhouse gas emissions during cattle feedlot manure composting. Journal of Environmental Quality 30, 376-386.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Hergoualc’h K, Akiyama H, Bernoux M, Chirinda N, del Prado A, Kasimir Å, MacDonald JD, Ogle SM, Regina K, van der Weerden TJ (2019) N2O emissions from managed soils, and CO2 emissions from lime and urea application. In ‘2019 refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories’. (Eds E Calvo Buendia, K Tanabe, A Kranjc, J Baasansuren, M Fukuda, S Ngarize, A Osako, Y Pyrozhenko, P Shermanau, S Federici) pp. 11.1–11.48. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Switzerland)

Hidayat , Rahmat A, Nissa RC, Sukamto , Nuraini L, Nurtanto M, Ramadhani WS (2023) Analysis of rice husk biochar characteristics under different pyrolysis temperature. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1201, 012095.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hospido A, Moreira MT, Feijoo G (2003) Simplified life cycle assessment of galician milk production. International Dairy Journal 13, 783-796.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Huang D, Gao L, Cheng M, Yan M, Zhang G, Chen S, Du L, Wang G, Li R, Tao J, Zhou W, Yin L (2022) Carbon and N conservation during composting: a review. Science of The Total Environment 840, 156355.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Jahan S, Azad AK (2015) Estimation of greenhouse gas emission from the livestock sector of Bangladesh. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) 4, 1148-1155.
| Google Scholar |

Jung S, Park Y-K, Kwon EE (2019) Strategic use of biochar for CO2 capture and sequestration. Journal of CO2 Utilization 32, 128-139.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kacprzak M, Malińska K, Grosser A, Sobik-Szołtysek J, Wystalska K, Dróżdż D, Jasińska A, Meers E (2023) Cycles of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in poultry manure management technologies – environmental aspects. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 53, 914-938.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kanani F (2021) Regionalized life cycle assessment of renewable energy and waste valorization technologies for the Canadian egg industry. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia, Canada.

Kim S-H, Mamuad LL, Islam M, Lee S-S (2020) Reductive acetogens isolated from ruminants and their effect on in vitro methane mitigation and milk performance in Holstein cows. Journal of Animal Science and Technology 62, 1-13.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Kreidenweis U, Breier J, Herrmann C, Libra J, Prochnow A (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions from broiler manure treatment options are lowest in well-managed biogas production. Journal of Cleaner Production 280, 124969.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kronthaler F, Zöllner S (2021) ‘Data analysis with RStudio.’ (Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Heidelberg)

KULIM (2020) Carbon footprint report. Kulim (Malaysia) Berhad, Johor. Available at https://johorplantations.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/KULIM-CFR-2020.pdf

Kumar RR, Park BJ, Cho JY (2013) Application and environmental risks of livestock manure. Journal of the Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry 56, 497-503.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lee M, Lai L, Lin W, Ciou J, Chang S, Yu B, Lee T (2017) Improving nutrition utilization and meat quality of broiler chickens through solid-state fermentation of agricultural by-products by Aureobasidium Pullulans. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola 19, 645-654.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lefebvre D, Fawzy S, Aquije CA, Osman AI, Draper KT, Trabold TA (2023) Biomass residue to carbon dioxide removal: quantifying the global impact of biochar. Biochar 5, 65.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lehmann J, Joseph S (2015) ‘Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation.’ 2nd edn. (Routledge: London & NY)

Li Y, Arulnathan V, Heidari MD, Pelletier N (2022) Design considerations for net zero energy buildings for intensive, confined poultry production: a review of current insights, knowledge gaps, and future directions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 154, 111874.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Liu N, Zhou J, Han L, Ma S, Sun X, Huang G (2017) Role and multi-scale characterization of bamboo biochar during poultry manure aerobic composting. Bioresource Technology 241, 190-199.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Lu L, Liao X-D, Luo X-G (2017) Nutritional strategies for reducing nitrogen, phosphorus and trace mineral excretions of livestock and poultry. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 16(12), 2815-2833.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mahardhika BP, Mutia R, Ridla M (2019) Efforts to reduce ammonia gas in broiler chicken litter with the use of probiotics. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 399, 012012.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Maier M, Weber TKD, Fiedler J, Fuß R, Glatzel S, Huth V, Jordan S, Jurasinski G, Kutzbach L, Schäfer K, Weymann D, Hagemann U (2022) Introduction of a guideline for measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes from soils using non-steady-state chambers. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 185, 447-461.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Majumder S, Neogi S, Dutta T, Powel MA, Banik P (2019) The impact of biochar on soil carbon sequestration: meta-analytical approach to evaluating environmental and economic advantages. Journal of Environmental Management 250, 109466.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Mannan M, Al-Ghamdi SG (2021) Life cycle thinking and environmental assessment of energy systems from supply and demand perspectives. In ‘Energy systems evaluation’. (Ed. J Ren) pp. 107–126. (Springer) doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67529-5_5

Mohammad Al-Kerwi MS, Mardenli O, Mahdi Jasim MR, Al-Majeed MA (2022) Effects of harmful gases emitted from poultry houses on productive and health performance. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1060, 012082.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mohd Sokri SS, Tee TP, Nurin AMY, Azhar S, Nayan N, Hj Suyub IB (2023) Optimization on co-composting of horse manure with pineapple waste composition using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1160, 012026.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mostert PF, Bos AP, van Harn J, de Jong IC (2022) The impact of changing toward higher welfare broiler production systems on greenhouse gas emissions: a Dutch case study using life cycle assessment. Poultry Science 101, 102151.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Muhammad J, Khan S, Lei M, Khan MA, Nawab J, Rashid A, Ullah S, Khisro SB (2020) Application of poultry manure in agriculture fields leads to food plant contamination with potentially toxic elements and causes health risk. Environmental Technology & Innovation 19, 100909.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ng WC, You S, Ling R, Gin KY-H, Dai Y, Wang C-H (2017) Co-gasification of woody biomass and chicken manure: syngas production, biochar reutilization, and cost-benefit analysis. Energy 139, 732-742.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nigussie A, Bruun S, Kuyper TW, de Neergaard A (2017) Delayed addition of nitrogen-rich substrates during composting of municipal waste: effects on nitrogen loss, greenhouse gas emissions and compost stability. Chemosphere 166, 352-362.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

NRECC (2022) Malaysia’s fourth biennial update report. Ministry Of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change, Malaysia (NRECC). Available at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/MY%20BUR4_2022.pdf

Parajuli R, Langford Q, Tong D, Moberg E, Thoma G (2022) Measuring and mitigating GHGs: soy. Available at https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/measuring-and-mitigating-ghgs-soy

Peng Q, Zeng XF, Zhu JL, Wang S, Liu XT, Hou CL, Thacker PA, Qiao SY (2016) Effects of dietary Lactobacillus plantarum B1 on growth performance, intestinal microbiota, and short chain fatty acid profiles in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 95, 893-900.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Pereira JLS (2017) Assessment of ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions from broiler houses in Portugal. Atmospheric Pollution Research 8, 949-955.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pereira ME, Varanda LD, Carvalho NRd, Sette CR, Jr, Padua FAd, De Conti AC, Yamaji FM (2021) Biochar produced from poultry litter waste. Research, Society and Development 10, e351101119704.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Petersen SO, Sommer SG (2011) Ammonia and nitrous oxide interactions: roles of manure organic matter management. Animal Feed Science and Technology 166-167, 503-513.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

PICCC (2022) Greenhouse accounting frameworks (GAF) for Australian Primary Industries. Primary Industries Climate Challenges Centre. Available at https://piccc.org.au/resources/Tools.html

Pipatti R, Alves JWS, Gao Q, Cabrera CL, Mareckova K, Oonk H, Scheehle E, Sharma C, Smith A, Svardal P, Yamada M (2006) Biological treatment of solid waste. In ‘2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories’. (Eds HS Eggleston, L Buendia, K Miwa, T Ngara, K Tanabe) pp. 4.1-4.8. (IGES: Japan)

Poore J, Nemecek T (2018) Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science 360, 987-992.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Pradhan G, Meena RS (2023) Utilizing waste compost to improve the atmospheric CO2 capturing in the rice-wheat cropping system and energy-cum–carbon credit auditing for a circular economy. Science of The Total Environment 892, 164572.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Prosser JI, Hink L, Gubry-Rangin C, Nicol GW (2020) Nitrous oxide production by ammonia oxidizers: physiological diversity, niche differentiation and potential mitigation strategies. Global Change Biology 26, 103-118.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Radu AL, Olaru O, Dimitriu-Caracota M, Banacu CS (2013) Carbon footprint analysis: towards a projects evaluation model for promoting sustainable development. Procedia Economics and Finance 6, 353-363.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rehman A, Nawaz S, Alghamdi HA, Alrumman S, Yan W, Nawaz MZ (2020) Effects of manure-based biochar on uptake of nutrients and water holding capacity of different types of soils. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 2, 100036.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reijnders L, Huijbregts MAJ (2005) Life cycle emissions of greenhouse gases associated with burning animal wastes in countries of the European Union. Journal of Cleaner Production 13, 51-56.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ripple WJ, Smith P, Haberl H, Montzka SA, McAlpine C, Boucher DH (2014) Ruminants, climate change and climate policy. Nature Climate Change 4, 2-5.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Shan G, Li W, Gao Y, Tan W, Xi B (2021) Additives for reducing nitrogen loss during composting: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production 307, 127308.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sharma A, Reeves M, Washburn C (2023) Pesticides and climate change: a vicious cycle. Available at https://www.panna.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/202308ClimateChangeEng.pdf

Such N, Mezőlaki Á, Rawash MA, Tewelde KG, Pál L, Wágner L, Schermann K, Poór J, Dublecz K (2023) Diet composition and using probiotics or symbiotics can modify the urinary and faecal nitrogen ratio of broiler chicken’s excreta and also the dynamics of in vitro ammonia emission. Animals 13, 332.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sun K, Liu H, Fan H, Liu T, Zheng C (2021) Research progress on the application of feed additives in ruminal methane emission reduction: a review. PeerJ 9, e11151.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Tamboli A, Haque M, Jojare Y, Ohol A (2023) Consumer preference for eco-friendly products in relation to sustainability awareness. Journal of Advanced Zoology 44, 87-93.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tańczuk M, Junga R, Kolasa-Więcek A, Niemiec P (2019) Assessment of the energy potential of chicken manure in Poland. Energies 2019 12, 1244.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Taylor C, Maroccia J, Masterson M, Rosentrater KA (2023) Comprehensive life cycle assessment of the corn wet milling industry in the United States. Frontiers in Energy Research 11, 1023561.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Teichmann I (2014) Technical greenhouse-gas mitigation potentials of biochar soil incorporation in Germany. DIW Berlin Discussion Paper No. 1406. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2487765

Tomczyk A, Sokołowska Z, Boguta P (2020) Biochar physicochemical properties: pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology 19, 191-215.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Usva K, Hietala S, Nousiainen J, Vorne V, Vieraankivi M-L, Jallinoja M, Leinonen I (2023) Environmental life cycle assessment of Finnish broiler chicken production – focus on climate change and water scarcity impacts. Journal of Cleaner Production 410, 137097.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Varjani SJ (2017) Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. Bioresource Technology 223, 277-286.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Vieira Novais S, Oliveira Zenero MD, Frade Junior EF, Paiva de Lima R, Pelegrino Cerri CE (2017) Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from tropical soils amended with poultry manure and sugar cane straw biochars. Agricultural Sciences 8, 887-903.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vohra A, Syal P, Madan A (2016) Probiotic yeasts in livestock sector. Animal Feed Science and Technology 219, 31-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wang S, Zeng Y (2018) Ammonia emission mitigation in food waste composting: a review. Bioresource Technology 248, 13-19.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Wedwitschka H, Gallegos Ibanez D, Schäfer F, Jenson E, Nelles M (2020) Material Characterization and substrate suitability assessment of chicken manure for dry batch anaerobic digestion processes. Bioengineering 7, 106.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yaashikaa PR, Kumar PS, Varjani S, Saravanan A (2020) A critical review on the biochar production techniques, characterization, stability and applications for circular bioeconomy. Biotechnology Reports 28, e00570.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yasmin N, Jamuda M, Panda AK, Samal K, Nayak JK (2022) Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) during composting and vermicomposting: measurement, mitigation, and perspectives. Energy Nexus 7, 100092.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Yu Y, Li Q, Zeng X, Xu Y, Jin K, Liu J, Cao G (2022) Effects of probiotics on the growth performance, antioxidant functions, immune responses, and caecal microbiota of broilers challenged by lipopolysaccharide. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 9, 846649.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhang L, Li L, Pan X, Shi Z, Feng X, Gong B, Li J, Wang L (2018a) Enhanced growth and activities of the dominant functional microbiota of chicken manure composts in the presence of maize straw. Frontiers in Microbiology 9, 1131.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhang Y, Fu C-Y, Liu X-L, Li X-H, Jing Q-C, Wei X-F, Shi T-H, Dong Y-L, Yan P-P (2018b) Effect of poultry wastewater irrigation on nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon contents in farmland soil. Open Chemistry 16, 968-977.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhao L, Cao X, Zheng W, Kan Y (2014) Phosphorus-assisted biomass thermal conversion: reducing carbon loss and improving biochar stability. PLoS ONE 9, e115373.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zhou S, Liang H, Han L, Huang G, Yang Z (2019) The influence of manure feedstock, slow pyrolysis, and hydrothermal temperature on manure thermochemical and combustion properties. Waste Management 88, 85-95.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zuas O, Budiman H, Mansur D, Mulyana MR (2018) Measurement of HDO products using GC-TCD: towards obtaining reliable analytical data. Catalysis for Sustainable Energy 5, 1-11.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zubir MA, Bong CPC, Ishak SA, Ho WS, Hashim H (2022) The trends and projections of greenhouse gas emission by the livestock sector in Malaysia. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 24, 363-377.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |