Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Net greenhouse-gas emissions and reduction opportunities in the Western Australian beef industry

Stephen Wiedemann https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7060-0404 A * , Emma Longworth https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7424-7020 A and Riley O’Shannessy A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Integrity Ag, 10 Neil Street, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.


Handling Editor: Dean Thomas

Animal Production Science 64, AN23111 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN23111
Submitted: 22 March 2023  Accepted: 23 October 2023  Published: 21 November 2023

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Context

The Western Australian (WA) Government has set ambitious emission reduction targets and is developing strategies to reduce emissions across the state economy, including agriculture.

Aims

This study determined the product carbon footprint (CF) and total emissions of the WA beef industry, to establish a baseline for emission reduction planning.

Methods

A cradle-to-gate attributional life-cycle assessment with a reconciled livestock inventory of herd numbers and turnoff, was used. Emission reduction strategies were examined and included herd management, enteric-methane mitigation, and removals via carbon sequestration in vegetation and soils.

Key results

Modelled livestock numbers were found to be 36% higher than reported in the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), resulting in an emission profile of 4.7 million tonnes (Mt) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) (excluding land use (LU) and direct LU change (dLUC)). This profile was 26% higher than emissions reported in state inventories. LU and dLUC were estimated to be a greenhouse-gas removal of −2.6 Mt CO2-e, although with high uncertainty. The mean CF for WA was 15.3 kg CO2-e per kg liveweight (LW) (excluding LU and dLUC). State-wide removals from LU and dLUC were estimated to be −8.5 kg CO2-e/kg LW. The CF was 11.7, 19.2 and 18.2 kg CO2-e/kg LW for the Agricultural, Kimberley and Arid regions respectively. The implementation of herd-management strategies and anti-methanogenic supplements resulted in a maximum 25% reduction.

Conclusions

Herd productivity and market specifications were key drivers of regional differences in CF. Opportunities exist to reduce the CF in northern herds through diverting cattle to Australian backgrounding and feedlot supply chains to reach slaughter weight at a younger age. Adoption of anti-methanogenic feed supplements were important; however, achieving major reductions in the next decade will rely on removals via carbon sequestration in soil and vegetation.

Implications

Considering the magnitude of removals and elevated uncertainty in this result, further research and new datasets are needed to refine this analysis. New datasets are required to accurately report livestock numbers and track and reduce future GHG emissions from this higher baseline. Technical, cost and adoption barriers will need to be addressed by developing actionable pathways to achieve emission reduction in the mid- to long term.

Keywords: beef cattle, carbon footprint, climate change, emission reduction strategies, greenhouse gas, herd inventory, lifecycle assessment, red meat, sustainable agriculture, Western Australia.

References

ABARES (2020) Farm data portal: farm survey data for beef, lamb and sheep industries: all beef industries combined. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Australia. Available at https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/data/farm-data-portal

ABARES (2021) Farm survey data for beef, lamb and sheep industries. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Australia. Available at http://apps.agriculture.gov.au/mla/

ABARES (2022) Farm surveys definitions and methods. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Australia. Available at https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/research-topics/surveys/farm-definitions-methods#definitions-of-items

ABS (2020a) ‘7121.0 – agricultural commodities, Australia.’ (Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra, ACT, Australia)

ABS (2020b) ‘7125.0 – livestock products, Australia.’ (Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra, ACT, Australia)

ABS (2022a) 7215.0 – livestock products, Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Available at https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/agriculture/livestock-products-australia

ABS (2022b) 7215.0 – livestock products, Australia. Table 9. Red meat produced – beef: all series (tonnes). Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia. Available at https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/agriculture/livestock-products-australia/latest-release#data-download

Alemu AW, Shreck AL, Booker CW, McGinn SM, Pekrul LKD, Kindermann M, Beauchemin KA (2021) Use of 3-nitrooxypropanol in a commercial feedlot to decrease enteric methane emissions from cattle fed a corn-based finishing diet. Journal of Animal Science 99, skaa394.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

ALFA (2020) ‘Cattle above 1 million head despite challenges.’ (Australian Lot Feeders Association, Australia)

Almeida AK, Cowley FC, Hegarty RS (2023) A regional-scale assessment of nutritional-system strategies for abatement of enteric methane from grazing livestock. Animal Production Science 63, 1461-1472.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ash A, Hunt L, McDonald C, Scanlan J, Bell L, Cowley R, Watson I, McIvor J, MacLeod N (2015) Boosting the productivity and profitability of northern Australian beef enterprises: exploring innovation options using simulation modelling and systems analysis. Agricultural Systems 139, 50-65.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Australian Government (2020) Full carbon accounting model (FullCAM). 2020 public release. Version 6.20.03.0827. Available at https://www.industry.gov.au/data-and-publications/full-carbon-accounting-model-fullcam

Bai M, Flesch TK, McGinn SM, Chen D (2015) A snapshot of greenhouse gas emissions from a cattle feedlot. Journal of Environmental Quality 44, 1974-1978.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Beauchemin KA, McGinn SM (2005) Methane emissions from feedlot cattle fed barley or corn diets. Journal of Animal Science 83, 653-661.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Beauchemin KA, Ungerfeld EM, Abdalla AL, Alvarez C, Arndt C, Becquet P, Benchaar C, Berndt A, Mauricio RM, McAllister TA, Oyhantçabal W, Salami SA, Shalloo L, Sun Y, Tricarico J, Uwizeye A, De Camillis C, Bernoux M, Robinson T, Kebreab E (2022) Invited review: current enteric methane mitigation options. Journal of Dairy Science 105, 9297-9326.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Bell LW, Hayes RC, Pembleton KG, Waters CM (2014) Opportunities and challenges in Australian grasslands: pathways to achieve future sustainability and productivity imperatives. Crop & Pasture Science 65, 489-507.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bentley D, Hegarty RS, Alford AR (2008) Managing livestock enterprises in Australia’s extensive rangelands for greenhouse gas and environment outcomes: a pastoral company perspective. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 60-64.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bryan K, Parnell P, Teseling C (2014) ‘Management practices of Bos taurus bulls in non-temperate Australia.’ (Meat and Livestock Australia: Australia)

Bureau of Meteorology (2023) Previous droughts. Available at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/knowledge-centre/previous-droughts.shtml

Cain M, Jenkins S, Allen MR, Lynch J, Frame DJ, Macey AH, Peters GP (2021) Methane and the Paris Agreement temperature goals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 380, 20200456.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Charmley E, Williams SRO, Moate PJ, Hegarty RS, Herd RM, Oddy VH, Reyenga P, Staunton KM, Anderson A, Hannah MC (2016) A universal equation to predict methane production of forage-fed cattle in Australia. Animal Production Science 56, 169-180.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Commonwealth of Australia (2022a) National inventory report 2020. Vol. 1. Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/publications/national-inventory-report-2020

Commonwealth of Australia (2022b) National greenhouse gas inventory – Paris Aareement inventory. (Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System) Available at https://ageis.climatechange.gov.au/

Cottle DJ, Nolan JV, Wiedemann SG (2011) Ruminant enteric methane mitigation: a review. Animal Production Science 51, 491-514.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

CSIRO (2018) Water resource assessment for the Fitzroy catchment. (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation: Australia) Available at &https://www.csiro.au/~/media/Major-initiatives/Northern-Australia/NAWRA-Summary-Reports/18-00186_LW_NAWRASummary24pp_Fitzroy_WEB_180709.pdf?la=en&hash=3F098B14F5DDD248D44B035FC0E785DBDF7F09E4

DAWE (2022) All livestock exports. (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment: Australia) Available at https://www.awe.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/export/controlled-goods/live-animals/live-animal-export-statistics/livestock-exports-by-market

de Almeida A, Cowley F, Hergarty R (2021) ‘B.FLT.5010 – methane emissions of Australian feedlot cattle as influenced by 3-nitrooxypropanol.’ (Meat and Livestock Australia)

Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (2023) Sectoral Emissions Reduction Strategies (SERS) and the agricultural sector. Available at https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-land-water/sectoral-emissions-reduction-strategies-sers-and-agricultural-sector

DWER (2020) ‘Western Australian climate policy – a plan to position Western Australia for a prosperous and resilient low-carbon future.’ (Department of Water and Environmental Regulation, WA, Australia)

Eady SJ (2011) ‘Undertaking a life cycle assessment for the livestock export trade.’ (Meat & Livestock Australia: Sydney, NSW, Australia)

FAO (2016) ‘Environmental performance of large ruminant supply chains: guidelines for assessment.’ (Food and Agriculture Organization: Rome, Italy)

FAO (2023) Methane emissions in livestock and rice systems – sources, quantification, mitigation and metrics. (FAO) Available at https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7607en

Fordyce G, Shephard R, Moravek T, McGowan MR (2021) Australian cattle herd: a new perspective on structure, performance and production. Animal Production Science 63, 410-421.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Friedel MH, Morton SR (2022) A history of CSIRO’S Central Australian Laboratory, 1: 1953-80: pastoral land research. Historical Records of Australian Science 34, 36-49.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gavrilova O, Leip A, Dong O, MacDonald J, Alfredo C, Bravo G, Amon B, Rosales R, Prado A, Lima M, Oyhantcabal W, Weerden T, Widiawati Y (2019) Emissions from livestock and manure management. In ‘2019 refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. Vol. 4. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use’. (Eds E Calvo Buendia, K Tanabe, A Kranjc, J Baasansuren, M Fukuda, S Ngarize, A Osako, Y Pyroshenko, P Shermanau, S Federici) pp. 10.90–10.209. (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies: Japan)

Gleeson T, Martin P, Mifsud C (2012) Northern Australian beef industry assessment of risks and opportunities. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Australia.

Greenwood PL, Gardner GE, Ferguson DM (2018) Current situation and future prospects for the Australian beef industry – a review. Asian–Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 31, 992-1006.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Hansen BD, Leonard E, Mitchell MC, Easton J, Shariati N, Mortlock MY, Schaefer M, Lamb DW (2023) Current status of and future opportunities for digital agriculture in Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 74, 524-537.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Harrison MT, McSweeney C, Tomkins NW, Eckard RJ (2015) Improving greenhouse gas emissions intensities of subtropical and tropical beef farming systems using Leucaena leucocephala. Agricultural Systems 136, 138-146.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Holmes PR (2015) Rangeland pastoralism in northern Australia: change and sustainability. The Rangeland Journal 37, 609-616.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hughes N, Galeano D, Hatfield-Dodds S (2019) ABARES insights: the effects of drought and climate variability on Australian farms. Available at https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/products/insights/effects-of-drought-and-climate-variability-on-Australian-farms

Hunt L, Ash A, McLeod N, McDonald C, Scanlan J, Bell L, Cowley R, Watson I, McIvor J (2014) Research opportunities for sustainable productivity improvement in the northern beef industry: a scoping study. (Meat & Livestock Australia: Sydney, NSW, Australia) Available at http://era.daf.qld.gov.au/id/eprint/6105/

IPCC (2013) AR5 climate change 2013: the physical science basis. (IPCC) Available at https://www.ipcc.ch

ISO (2006) ‘ISO 14040: 2006 – environmental management – life cycle assessment – principles and framework.’ (International Organisation for Standardisation: Geneva, Switzerland)

ISO (2018) ‘ISO 14067:2018 – greenhouse gases – carbon footprint of products – requirements and guidelines for quantification.’ International Organisation for Standardisation: Geneva, Switzerland)

ISO (2022) Net zero guidelines. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland. Available at https://www.iso.org/netzero

Kuehne G, Llewellyn R, Pannell DJ, Wilkinson R, Dolling P, Ouzman J, Ewing M (2017) Predicting farmer uptake of new agricultural practices: a tool for research, extension and policy. Agricultural Systems 156, 115-125.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Martin F, Saavedra F (2018) Irrigated agriculture. In ‘Water policy in Chile. Vol. 21. Global Issues in Water Policy’. (Ed. G Donoso) pp. 165–177. (Springer) doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76702-4_11

Materne C (2019) Beyond the dry times – old man plains field day 2019. Alice Springs, Northern Territory. Available at https://futurebeef.com.au/old-man-plains-field-day-beyond-the-dry-times/

Materne C, Tincknell J, Conradie P (2017) ‘Quality graze producer steer challenge.’ (Meat & Livestock Australia)

Mayberry D, Bartlett H, Moss J, Davison T, Herrero M (2019) Pathways to carbon-neutrality for the Australian red meat sector. Agricultural Systems 175, 13-21.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McGinn SM, Chen D, Loh Z, Hill J, Beauchemin KA, Denmead OT (2008) Methane emissions from feedlot cattle in Australia and Canada. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 183-185.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Moe PW, Tyrrell HF (1979) Methane production in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 62, 1583-1586.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

OECD/FAO (2022) OECD–FAO agricultural outlook 2022–2031. (OECD) Available at https://doi.org/10.1787/f1b0b29c-en

Payne E, Whitaker S (2016) ‘Change to weight requirements for feeder cattle to Indonesia.’ (Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, Australia)

Pré-Consultants (2021) ‘SimaPro 9.3 Software.’ (Pré-Consultants: Amersfoort, Netherlands) Available at https://simapro.com/

Purvis JR (1986) Nuture the land: my philosophies of pastoral management in central Australia. The Rangeland Journal 8, 110-117.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reisinger A (2018) ‘The contribution of methane emissions from New Zealand livestock to global warming.’ p. 44. (NZAGRC)

Reisinger A, Clark H (2018) How much do direct livestock emissions actually contribute to global warming. Global Change Biology 24, 1749-1761.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Reisinger A, Clark H, Cowie AL, Emmet-Booth J, Gonzalez Fischer C, Herrero M, Howden M, Leahy S (2021) How necessary and feasible are reductions of methane emissions from livestock to support stringent temperature goals? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 379, 20200452.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

RMAC (2019) ‘Red meat 2030.’ (Reat Meat Advisory Council, Australia.

RNRM (2017) Cunyu station visit an example of profitable, sustainable pastoralism. Rangelands Natural Resource Management, Perth, WA, Australia.

Rogelj J, Shindell D, Jiang K, Fifita S, Forster P, Ginzburg V, Handa C, Kheshgi H, Kobayashi S, Kriegler E, Mundaca L, Séférian R, Vilariño M (2018) Mitigation pathways compatible with 1.5°C in the context of sustainable development. In ‘Global Warming of 1.5°C an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change’. (Eds V Masson-Delmotte, P Zhai, H-O Pörtner, D Roberts, J Skea, PR Shukla, A Pirani, W Moufouma-Okia, C Péan, R Pidcock, S Connors, JBR Matthews, Y Chen, X Zhou, MI Gomis, E Lonnoy, T Maycock, M Tignor, T Waterfield) pp. 93–174. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)

Roxburgh S, England J, Evans D, Nolan M, Opie K, Paul K, Reeson A, Cook G, Thomas D (2020) Potential future supply of carbon offsets in the land sector in Australia. (CSIRO) Available at https://doi.org/10.25919/h4xk-9r08

Sevenster M, Renouf M, Islam N, Cowie A, Eckard R, Hall M, Hirlam K, Laing A, Longbottom M, Longworth E, Ridoutt B, Wiedemann S (2023) ‘A common approach to sector-level greenhouse gas accounting for Australian agriculture. Methods and data guidance.’ (CSIRO, Australia)

Smith SM, Lowe JA, Bowerman NHA, Gohar LK, Huntingford C, Allen MR (2012) Equivalence of greenhouse-gas emissions for peak temperature limits. Nature Climate Change 2, 535-538.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stockdale M, Huey AM, Dray R, Holmes P, Smith PC (2012) ‘Kimberley and Pilbara RD&E program: phase 1.’ (Meat & Livestock Australia: Australia)

Thomson A (1999) Cattle production in the Gascoyne and interior regions of Western Australia; a report on the Cunyu demographic study (1990-1998) Australia; a report on the Cunyu demographic study (1990-1998) and the Mt Clere Producer Demonstration Site (1993-1997) and the Mt Clere Producer Demonstration Site (1993-1997). (Department of Agriculture Western Australia) Available at https://library.dpird.wa.gov.au/misc_pbns/162/

United Nations (2015) Adoption of the Paris Agreement. In ‘21st Conference of the Parties’. pp. 24–45. (United Nations: Paris, France) doi:10.4324/9789276082569-2

Walsh D, Cowley R (2016) Optimising beef business performance in northern Australia: what can 30 years of commercial innovation teach us? The Rangeland Journal 38, 291-305.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wiedemann SG, Henry BK, McGahan EJ, Grant T, Murphy CM, Niethe G (2015) Resource use and greenhouse gas intensity of Australian beef production: 1981–2010. Agricultural Systems 133, 109-118.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wiedemann S, McGahan E, Murphy C, Yan M (2016) Resource use and environmental impacts from beef production in eastern Australia investigated using life cycle assessment. Animal Production Science 56, 882-894.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wiedemann S, Davis R, McGahan E, Murphy C, Redding M (2017) Resource use and greenhouse gas emissions from grain-finishing beef cattle in seven Australian feedlots: a life cycle assessment. Animal Production Science 57, 1149-1162.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wiedemann S, Biggs L, Watson K, Gould N, McGahan E (2019) ‘Beef industry 35 year trends analysis.’ (Meat & Livestock Australia: Sydney, NSW, Australia)

Wiedemann S, Longworth E, Campbell D, Duff K (2022a) Carbon footprint and reduction options for Harvest Road Group operations. Available at https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2022/harvest-road-group-carbon-neutral-supply-chains-2025/

Wiedemann S, Longworth E, Campbell D, Duff K (2022b) ‘Carbon footprint and reduction options for Harvest Road Group operations.’ (Meat & Livestock Australia: Australia)

Wiedemann S, Neale L, O’Shannessy R (2023) ‘Beef industry trends analysis – 2020.’ (Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA): Sydney, NSW)