A review of some aspects of goat meat quality: future research recommendations
Archana Abhijith
A , Robyn D. Warner A , Frank R. Dunshea A B , Brian J. Leury A , Minh Ha A and Surinder S. Chauhan A *
A School of Agriculture and Food, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.
B Faculty of Biological Sciences, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
Animal Production Science 63(14) 1361-1375 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN22355
Submitted: 15 September 2022 Accepted: 27 June 2023 Published: 21 July 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
The global goat meat sector is advancing and contributes to long-term food security, especially in meeting the protein demands of the growing human population in developing countries. Spanning all countries, Australia, is the largest exporter of goat meat, although it has negligible consumption. However, Australia does potentially have a secure future as an innovative, profitable, and resilient world leader in goat production, provided some challenges are addressed. These challenges facing the goat meat sector require suitable strategies and interventions for better profitability and acceptance of goat meat consumed in Australia and as an export product. Limited research on goat meat quality and the lack of an adequate grading system for goat meat quality are two of the major issues that need attention from the industry and researchers. Some of the most critical areas that need further research to enable growth of the goat meat industry are the influence of genetics and age of animals on meat quality, standardisation of the ageing period of various goat meat cuts, cooking innovations, consumer acceptance and sensory analysis of goat meat (both farmed and rangeland goats). This paper reviews the status of the goat meat sector and identifies the opportunities for the goat meat sector, particularly in Australia. In addition, we highlight several key issues requiring further research and interventions to enhance the growth of the goat meat industry.
Keywords: chevon, cold-shortening, cooking temperature, farmed goats, feral, glycogen, muscle fibre, sensory.
Introduction
Goat meat is consumed globally by more people than is red meat derived from other species, and has no religious or cultural restrictions on production, slaughter or consumption (except for the specific halal slaughter requirement by the Muslim community; GICA 2015). It is a major source of protein in developing countries, where the production and consumption of goat meat is high (Webb 2014). The growing global goat population, estimated to be ~7.7 billion, is mainly in Asia and Africa (90%), with significant numbers in individual countries including China (39%), India (9%), Pakistan (6%), Nigeria (4%), Bangladesh (4%), Australia (1%), and other (38%) (MLA 2020). In developing countries with abundant goat production, the adaptabilities of animals to different climatic conditions and diets are important traits of goats. Although goat meat contributes to long-term food security and possesses health benefits (Ivanović et al. 2016), there are several industry-related issues that need to be addressed, especially in developed countries. This paper reviews the critical factors influencing goat meat quality, which need to be addressed to enhance the consumption of goat meat, with a particular focus on the Australian domestic market. Additionally, this paper highlights several opportunities requiring intervention, and identifies key areas requiring further research, to enhance the growth of the goat meat industry globally.
Goat meat industry in Australia
Australia is the leading exporter of goat meat globally, contributing to 34% of global export value, although it is a small producer that provides only 0.4% to global goat meat production compared with other countries (MLA 2020). The total value of goat meat exported from Australia was A$145.5 million in 2020, down 38% from the value in 2019 (MLA 2020). Consumption of goat meat in Australia is negligible compared with other red meat (approximately 10% of goat meat produced is consumed in Australia), although one-third of Australian consumers would consider consuming goat meat (GICA 2015). The ‘over-the-hooks’ price for goat meat has increased over the past few years from A$3.71/kg cwt (carcass weight) at the beginning of 2015 to a peak of A$6.83/kg cwt in July 2017, with a further increase to A$9.05/kg cwt by April 2022 (NLRS 2022). The Australian goat meat export market has proven to be a lucrative enterprise, with 19 046 t slaughter weight reported in 2021 (MLA 2022). The meat is exported predominantly to the USA (57%) and Taiwan (12%), followed by South Korea (6%), Canada (4%), and Trinidad and Tobago (5%) (AgriFutures 2016). Australia has established a reputation as a trusted and consistent goat meat supplier. Malaysia is the major destination for live export of goats, which accounted for only 3% of total export value of goats/goat meat of A$7.0 million in 2019 (16 059 head in 2019) (MLA 2020).
In contrast to the export market, the Australian domestic goat meat market growth is considerably slower, and goat meat is still a peripheral part of the Australian consumer’s diet. The domestic destination for the Australian goat meat is supermarkets, wholesale and retail butchers, and restaurants (GICA 2015). The major constraints for the Australian domestic market include the lack of availability of a consistent supply of quality goat meat. For the aforementioned reasons, a quality assurance scheme similar to Meat Standards Australia (MSA) established for beef and sheep (MLA 2018) may contribute to expanding domestic demand. However, commercial exporters/processors may have less interest in a fresh quality-grading program, because this may not be financially beneficial; they export frozen whole carcass or as six-way cuts. Another practical challenge in grading goat meat quality is that most goat meat is harvested from the wild and comprises rangeland goats, contributing up to 90% of Australian goat meat production (MLA 2020). Rangelands are mainly indigenous lands which are mainly grasses, herbs and shrubs suitable for grazing and browsing, and where the land is managed as a natural ecosystem, whereas farmed areas may be premoninantly improved pastures (MLA 2006). The rangeland goat is typically a mix of different breeds rather than representing a specific breed themselves. These feral populations are descended from domesticated goats, which have interbred with each other, and some of the domesticated goat breeds that have contributed to the feral goat populations in Australia include British Alpine, Ango-Nubian and Toggenburg, Boer and Australian Cashmere (MLA 2006). The greatest numbers are present in the semi-arid pastoral areas of Western Australia, western New South Wales, southern South Australia, and central and south-western Queensland (Jones 2012). These goats have adapted to the harsher rangeland environments and no longer resemble the original breeds of domesticated goats introduced with the European settlement (GICA 2015). There is no control over the pre-slaughter nutrition with wild goats and less than desirable control over management from paddock to slaughter. The National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) in Australia ensures lifetime movements of sheep and goats by NLIS-accreditd tag/device before movement (NLIS 2020). However, rangeland and dairy goats have tagging exemptions in some states and territories. This could challenge the traceability of these goats. Additionally, processors are reluctant to provide individual carcass data back to the producers, which could limit any improvements.
Rangeland goat constitutes a major source of animals for the goat meat processing industry (GICA 2015). The remaining goats slaughtered in Australia are farmed Boer goats and their crosses. A survey conducted in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia, in 2016 reported the existence of the following breeds: Australian rangeland goats, Boer (White and Red), Anglo-Nubian, Toggenburg, Saanen and Savannah. Pastoral regions were dominated by rangeland goats and Boer-cross goats, while high-rainfall regions had purebred Boer goats for stud breeding. Other breeds were kept by 35% of producers interviewed in the survey (Nogueira et al. 2016). Producers reported introducing Boer goats into the rangeland goat herd to improve bodyweights and carcass weights. There are about 4–6 million rangeland goats and ~200 000 farmed meat goats in Australia (AgriFutures 2016). Table 1 provides information on the breeds/types and numbers of goats in Australia. There are few reports on the Australian consumer perceptions of goat meat. Robust studies focusing on consumer perceptions could enable, or even drive, innovations in the Australian goat meat industry. Table 2 provides a guide to the specifications for a range of goat meat market segments in Australia.
| Breed type | Category | Estimated population | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rangeland goats | Uncertain | 2.6 million | |
| Domestic farmed goats | Dairy goats | 25 000 | |
| Fibre goats | 155 000 Angora 10 000 Cashmere | ||
| Meat goats | <200 000 | ||
| Estimated total | 450 000 |
The values are only estimates (Swain 2011).
| Market | Customers | Age/size | Breed | Sex | Other requirements | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Live trade | Malaysia | >40 kg live weight | All | All | Prefer heavier goats | |
Middle East | All | All | – | |||
Saudi Arabia | Prefer farmed Boer goat bloodlines, but will accept all | All | Must be farmed | |||
Capretto | Domestic food-services sector | All. No secondary sexual characteristics in the case of males | Lean, tender, juicy meat from young milk-fed unweaned kid | |||
Chevon | Domestic food-services sector; Export – European and USA markets | Boer bloodlines | All. In case of males and castrate males, no evidence of secondary sexual chararacteristics | Must be farmed. Prefer milk-teeth and fat score 2–3 | ||
Commodity goat meat | Taiwan, USA, Canada, Carribean | Range of age and size | Range of breeds | – | Taiwan and Chinese community in USA have demand for skin-on product. Shorter-haired breeds or shorn goats are preferred for this product. Rangeland, Boer and Boer goat crosses are suitable |
Source: MLA (2021).
Major drivers of goat meat consumption in Australia
Consumption of goat meat depends on consumer demographics, where factors such as religion, nationality, heritage, region, and gross income play important roles (Sans and Combris 2015). The major consumers of goat meat in Australia comprise people of Hispanic, Muslim and Caribbean backgrounds (MLA 2020). Traditional perceptions that goat meat is associated with off-smells, off-flavours, unappealing colour, and perceived toughness are some reasons for the low preference for goat meat despite the health benefits of goat meat recognised by consumers from other demographics (Mandolesi et al. 2020). In addition, many cultures are unfamiliar with consuming goat meat and are less likely to either try or purchase it.
Animal age is an important determinant of meat quality and consumer preference for goat meat (Basinger 2016; Mehjabin et al. 2016). In 2005, it was observed that Hispanics prefer kids (goats of 4–8 weeks of age), weighing 6–12 kg live weight and young goats usually termed as chevon (6–9 months age) weighing about 23 kg. In contrast, Muslims favour heavier goats and consume male and non-castrated goats of ~32 kg liveweight (Knight et al. 2006). Furthermore, Jamaicans, Haitians, West Africans and African Americans prefer meat from intact male and adult goats above 2 years of age (Pinkerton et al. 1994). The negative quality attributes associated with goat meat could be strongly influenced by past experiences, when goat meat from older animals (above 2 years age) was sold in markets and age had a noticeable deleterious impact on tenderness and caused a gamey flavour (Mandolesi et al. 2020). However, there is an increasing trend for goat kid meat globally (Brand et al. 2018).
Goat meat possesses unique flavour and aroma (Madruga et al. 2000) and these attributes are influenced by breed (Dhanda et al. 2003), age (Smith et al. 1978; Sheridan et al. 2003; Saccà et al. 2019), subcutaneous fat thickness (Schönfeldt et al. 1993) (Table 3, Item 6), sex (Rodrigues and Teixeira 2009), diet (Oliveira et al. 2015), and method of cooking (Liu et al. 2013) (Table 3, Item 11). Previous studies showed that goat meat flavour is either rated acceptable (Griffin et al. 1992) or less desirable (Pike et al. 1973) than that of lamb or mutton, depending on the familiarity of the consumers and their ethnicity. Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) contribute to the typical sheep (Watkins et al. 2014) and goat (Johnson et al. 1977) flavour. Short-chain BCFAs, deposited in fat, typically contribute to the species-specific flavour of sheep and goat meat, which is higher in sexually mature male animals, and animals fed on a concentrate-based diet (Watkins et al. 2021). Consumers in different countries have different preference for goat meat (Karakuş and Yıl 2006). It is important to understand the factors that influence the flavour of goat meat, which would accordingly help producers develop management strategies.
| Factor | Breed | Muscle | DescriptionA | Sensory evaluation | Objective meat quality | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boer | LL, SM | 24 wether goats: (n = 12/group) | Ageing for 14 days reduced shear force in both age groups. 2-year-old goats exhibited higher lipid oxidation than the 6-9-month-old goats. Total muscle glycogen concentration was lower in both age groups compared to the optimum glycogen level required in muscles pre-slaughter (45–57 mmol glycogen/kg muscle) sufficient for normal pH decline. | ||||
Korean native black | LL, PM, SM, GM | 10 castrated male goats (n = 5/group) | Positive correlation between type IIb fibre and shear force. Shear force and collagen content, Type IIb was higher, and Myofibrillar Fragmentation Index (MFI) and sarcomere length was lower in 18 month old goats | ||||
Blanca Andaluza, Blanca Celtibérica, Moncaína, Negra Serrana–Castiza and Pirenaica | LL | 141 male kids from 5 breeds and 2 slaughter weight (n = 15/group) | Trained panel: light goat meat was more tender and juicier and with less odor than meat from heavy ones; Blanca Andaluza and Pirenaica had most tender and juicy meat | L*, b* and h diminished and C and a* was higher in goats with 11.5 kg than 7.5 kg slaughter weight | |||
Majorera breeds: two diets: suckled on dam or milk replacer and two liveweights at slaughter: 6 and 10 kg | LL, SM, TB | Kids of 2 live weight (n = 10/group) | High shear force in SM and TB of 10 kg kids. Moisture percentage significantly lower in 10 kg goats | ||||
Criollo Cordobes (CC) and Anglonubian suckling kids | LL | n = 10/group | Trained panel: meat from CC kids showed better scores for tenderness and juiciness | Shear force was higher in the goats with >11 kg slaughter weight | |||
Angora and Boer | LL, SM | Kids with no permanent incisors (n = 9/group) | Trained panel: Angora goat meat was juicier compared to Boer goat meat | Higher cooking loss in both muscles of Boer than Angora goats. Angora SM showed greater thawing loss than Boer | |||
Crossed Parda Alpina × undefined breed | LL | New-born kids with 3.35 ± 0.65 kg BW and slaughtered at 12 kg; 3 rearing systems (n = 7/group) | Trained panel: IS + C and IS presented better flavour, juiciness, aroma scores and higher overall acceptability | IS + C and IS had higher intramuscular fat content, lower shear force | |||
Boer–Saanen goats | LL | Age: 122.1 ± 3.6 days; 21.6 ± 2.9 kg body weight (n = 8/group) | Untrained consumers: 8.97%, 21.98%, and 28.28% longer acceptance for meat colour from goats fed with diets supplemented with 50, 150, and 450 mg vitamin E, respectively, compared with control group. | Inclusion of 450 mg vitamin E/kg DM in diets for Boer–Saanen goat kids significantly reduces the lipid oxidation | |||
West African dwarf bucks (5 months old) | Thigh and forearm | n = 3/group | Untrained consumers: overall acceptance of goat meat was higher for meat from animals fed cassava peel diet supplemented with cassava foliage | No significant impact on nutritional composition (dry matter, ash content, nitrogen free extract and other minerals) | |||
West African dwarf bucks (5 months old) | Thigh and forearm | n = 6/group | Untrained consumers: boiling (100–160°C) appeared to be preferred than micro-waving and oven-drying for overall acceptance | ||||
Not specified | SM | Vacuum-packed strips were heated to one of nine end-point temperatures (n = 15/treatment) | Cooking losses and shear force increased, at cooking temperature up to 80°C. | ||||
Osmanabadi and Salem Black (indigenous breeds) | LL | Osmanabadi control, Osmanabadi heat stress, Salem Black control and Salem Black heat stress; (n = 6/group) | Trained panel: Salem Black goat meat had better appearance and heat stress had no effect on sensory parameters | Heat stressed animals had high ultimate pH and shear force | |||
Malabari goat (indigenous) | LL | Control and heat stress (n = 6/group) | Trained panel: appearance and flavour showed lower scores in heat stress group | High pH and shear force in heat stress group | |||
Male Omani goats; male Dhofari goats | LL, BF, ST | Transported and non-transported goats (n = 10/group) | Transported goats (with heat stress) had higher ultimate pH, cooking loss, lower sarcomere length, and shear force. |
LL, longissimus thoracis et lumborum; BF, biceps femoris; GM, gluteus medius; PM, psoas major; SM, semimembranosus; ST, semitendinosus; TB, triceps brachii.
AKids, male or female goat that has 0 permanent incisor teeth and male shows no secondary sexual characteristics; wether, castrate or entire male that has up to 8 permannet incisor teeth and shows secondary sexual characteristics.
Shear-force values and tenderness of goat meat are generally acceptable when meat is from goat kids (Webb et al. 2005). Karthik et al. (2017) showed untrained consumers in India preferred tender goat meat from kids (4–6 months) to tougher meat from adult goats (aged > 12 months). Rodrigues and Teixeira (2009) showed through a trained sensory panel evaluation that meat from male goat kids had greater juiciness, flavour quality, and overall acceptability, than did meat from females.
Ageing of meat is another factor that is as equally important as is the age of the animal for improving tenderness. Ageing in beef, especially wet and dry ageing, are established ways of improving tenderness, flavour and overall acceptability of beef. Dry-aged beef is considered a premium product in restaurants and retail outlets (Stenström et al. 2014; Park et al. 2018). The limited work on dry ageing in sheep meat (lamb, hogget and mutton) has reported an increase in tenderness (Hastie et al. 2022), roasted and buttery flavours, and decreased negative traits such as bloodiness, boiled, livery and metallic flavours (Burvill 2016). However, most goat carcasses have very little subcutaneous fat, and therefore dry ageing could be a challenge. Wet ageing is consequently an alternative that warrants further research. The similarities in sensory attributes of lamb and goat kid meat when fed the same diet (Sheridan et al. 2003) imply that challenges in consumer acceptability faced by both types of meat are relatively similar.
The greatest constraint to goat meat consumption in Australia is the consumer’s unfamiliarity with preparing goat meat before cooking (MLA 2020). Consumers in western countries are usually unfamiliar with the preparation of goat meat and tend to prepare and cook goat meat using methods similar to those used for lamb. Thus, when exploring goat meat usage, consumers tend to make an inappropriate selection of goat meat cuts in relation to the proposed cooking method, which results in a poor eating experience. Currently, there is no MSA cut/cook pathway or protocols available for goat meat. Consumers generally seek a recipe that is quick and requires a few ingredients. Hence, further research looking at different cooking methods and consumer responses is needed.
Importance of grading meat quality
In the 1990s, the Australian red meat industry developed a grading scheme for sheep meat and beef as an innovative approach to tackle changing markets and evolving consumer demands. The Meat Standards Australia (MSA) system evolved from a large research effort to guarantee consumers a consistent eating quality and add value to the entire supply chain (Watson et al. 2008). The MSA program is supported by Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA), which works in partnership with the red meat industry and the federal government, with the core purpose of fostering the red meat industry. However, there is no similar grading scheme for goat meat, which could be mainly because of the current low demand for goat meat in the Australian domestic market.
Grading the eating quality of meat requires extensive experimentation to identify the ideal combination of conditions (age, sex, weight, fat depth and intramuscular fat, to name a few) that yield goat meat of acceptable quality. The MSA system identifies critical control points (CCPs) from the paddock to the plate, which is one of the keystones of this program that affect palatability. It considers the production, pre-slaughter, processing, and value-adding aspects of the supply chain, which has been achieved through large-scale sensory panel tests using untrained consumers. Further, the MSA-licensed processors grade meat in the abattoir before boning. The major determinants used during the grading of beef carcasses include carcass weight, sex, tropical breed content, eye-muscle area, hanging method, hump height (to determine Bos indicus content), ossification (to determine the maturity of the animal), marbling, rib fat, meat colour and fat colour, and eye-muscle area (MLA 2018). In sheepmeat, the traits used in grading are mainly carcass weight, nutrition and finishing, and sheep carcass class (minimum weight requirements are ≥16 kg hot carcass weight (HCW) for sucker (milk fed lamb) and ≥18 kg HCW for all weaned lambs, hogget and mutton. The cut and cooking method combination is a vital factor in optimising sheep meat eating quality. For example, muscle such as semimembranosus will have a high collagen and connective tissue content, which will be partially broken down through casserole (wet) cooking methods using low heat and moisture over a period of time, whereas for tender cuts such as loin, grilling is recommended. Selecting the appropriate cooking method will optimise the eating quality of these cuts (MLA 2019). Hence, the MSA grading system is a quality-assurance system that has proven capability of managing and predicting beef and sheep meat palatability, not only in Australia but also in other countries (Bonny et al. 2018). There are no standards established for presenting goat meat to consumers. The general trend in commercial production is to use cuts similar to those used for lamb (Webb et al. 2005; Webb 2014), which is debatable since the two species differ significantly in the inter- and intra-muscular subcutaneous fat content (Casey 1983). Therefore, it is important to focus studies on goats to develop a standardisation/classification system. Some of the important goat meat quality attributes are discussed in the next sections.
Meat pH, tenderness and flavour are the most important quality attributes
pH and temperature decline
The sensitivity of goats to pre-slaughter stress and consequent effects on the conversion of muscle to meat is one of the crucial areas requiring further research to better understand the relationship to goat meat quality (Kadim et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2023). Generally, ultimate pH values of goat longissimus tend to be higher, ranging from 5.8 to 6.2, than for other species (Simela et al. 2004; Kannan et al. 2014; Archana et al. 2018 (Table 3, Item 12); Abhijith et al. 2020). Meat with pH values >6 is generally considered unsuitable for storage because this favours the development of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms and reduced shelf-life (Aymerich et al. 2002). The high pH values associated with goat meat suggest that goats are generally more susceptible to stress than are other species because stress depletes muscle glycogen in the animal and low glycogen at slaughter is a common (not only) cause of high pH meat (Chauhan and England 2018). Low postmortem muscle concentrations of glycolytic metabolites strongly indicate pre-slaughter stress (Simela et al. 2004) and this has been previously related to the excitable nature of goats (Pophiwa et al. 2017). It is likely that the sensitivity of goats to pre-slaughter stress is similar to that seen in the Merino breed of sheep (Gardner et al. 1999) and warrants further investigation. The role of muscle glycogen in postmortem muscle glycolysis, and hence meat pH, is critical (Pethick et al. 1995). The critical threshold concentrations of glycogen needed to drop ultimate pH to 5.5–5.6 are between 45 and 57 mmol glycogen/kg muscle in ruminants and non-ruminants (Tarrant 1989; Warriss 1990; Pethick et al. 1995). In our (Abhijith et al. 2020) recent study on Boer goats, we observed that muscle glycogen concentration was as low as 27.4 and 11.6 μmol/g in young (6–9 months) and adult (2 years) goats. Similarly, glycogen concentration of 33 μmol/g occurred in muscle samples collected pre-slaughter in a study with a goat herd of mixed sex and age, and ante-mortem stress which includes transportation stress was identified as the cause (Simela 2007). Higher ultimate pH is usually associated with dark cutting and a variable degree of tenderisation even after ageing (Simela et al. 2004).
Muscle glycogen concentrations vary seasonally (Knee et al. 2004), linking feed quality and quantity with muscle glycogen concentration. Low glycogen concentrations may be a significant issue for goats because they are often maintained on poor-quality pasture. Moreover, there are reports of goats that have depleted muscle glycogen due to several stress factors such as transportation in hot environments, handling stress and high stocking density during transportation (Kannan et al. 2003; Nikbin et al. 2016). Studies on beef have shown that high-energy-supplement diets improved muscle glycogen concentration at slaughter and reduced the incidence of dark cutting/dark firm dry (DFD) meat (Knee et al. 2004, 2007). The authors proposed that supplying high-energy diets could be implemented as a preslaughter strategy ‘on-farm’ to reduce the incidence of dark cutting in beef; this raises the possibility that the same principles could be applied to goats. In fact, Brand et al. (2018) compared different levels of dietary energy content in Boer goats and concluded that goats can be slaughtered at liveweights between 30 and 50 kg and still present a lean carcass with a favourable yield. Moreover, it is known that in both cattle and sheep, a low plane of nutrition on the farm can contribute to low muscle glycogen at slaughter and a higher ultimate pH (Knee et al. 2004, 2007). Hence, MSA recommends that sheep dispatched for slaughter must have the weight gain of about 100–150 g/day for 2 weeks pre-slaughter, so as to ensure good nutrition and minimal problems with ultimate pH (MLA 2011). However, there are no such guidelines available for goats and further research is needed to define the optimal nutritional requirements of goats during their finishing phase, to ensure optimum muscle glycogen concentrations at the time of slaughter.
The influence of muscle fibre-type composition on muscle pH and meat quality is well documented (Lefaucheur 2010; Ithurralde et al. 2017). In a recent study in 14-month-old sheep, by using 15 muscles, larger fast-glycolytic fibres with reduced oxidative activity were associated with a lower ultimate pH, higher L* values, lower a* values and longer sarcomeres (Ithurralde et al. 2017). Another study in beef reported that psoas major with a higher proportion of Type I fibres than in semitendinosus and longissimus thoracis, showed a faster pH decline rate than did the other two muscles from 1 h to 6 h postmortem, but there was no difference among the muscles from 6 h to 24 h (Lang et al. 2020). Picard and Gagaoua (2020) suggested that the rate and extent of pH decline can be higher in meat with a greater percentage of fast-twitch glycolytic fibres than in the meat with a greater percentage of oxidative fibres. Further, Chauhan et al. (2019) demsonstrated that glycolysis and pH decline of oxidative muscles terminate prematurely at a higher ultimate pH, even in the presence of excess glycogen across livestock species. England et al. (2014) highlighted the critical role of phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity in the cessation of pH decline in cattle, poultry and pigs. PFK activity starts to decline near pH 5.9 and becomes completely inactive at pH 5.5, which causes cessation of the postmortem pH decline. England et al. (2016) later showed that oxidative muscles in pigs had a higher ultimate pH regardless of glycogen concentration. They suggested that there are other inherent muscle factors that control the extent of pH decline in porcine muscles. However, detailed studies looking at factors influencing postmortem muscle glycolysis and its role in goat meat quality are very few.
Tenderness
Tenderness of meat is important for consumer satisfaction (Grunert et al. 2004). Tenderness can be evaluated either through mechanical devices such as TPA (texture profile analysis) and Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) or with trained taste panels or untrained consumer panels (Watson et al. 2008). The major factors influencing meat tenderness include breed, age, nutrition, muscle and cooking method (Goetsch et al. 2011), some of which are listed in the publications summarised in Table 3. Investigation of the factors influencing meat tenderness is important for goat meat in particular, because of its perceived lower tenderness than lamb/mutton and beef (Savell et al. 1977). However, Sheridan et al. (2003) reported that Boer goat kids compare favourably with Merino lambs in terms of water-holding capacity, colour and shear-force values when raised under similar feedlot conditions and slaughtered at a similar age.
Age of the animal is an important determinant of goat meat quality (Bakhsh et al. 2019). In developed countries, animals above 2 years of age are usually traded in the goat market (MLA 2020). The influence of age on goat meat quality is not well documented. However, Saccà et al. (2019) found that meat of Angora suckling kids (5 weeks of age) was more tender than that of post-pubertal goats (34 weeks of age). Likewise, Simela et al. (2004) reported in their study on indigenous South African goats, that the semimembranosus of two-tooth goats had lower shear-force values (59.9 N vs 77.4 N) than that of eight-tooth goats. Negative correlations between slaughter weight and sensory scores evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale such as flavour (r = −0.59), tenderness (r = −0.84), juiciness (r = −0.82) and overall acceptability (r = −0.82) of cooked longissimus thoracis muscle of rangeland goats were reported (Pratiwi et al. 2007) and a cut-off of 40 kg liveweight was recommended before deterioration of meat quality. The inverse relationship between tenderness and age of goats (Smith et al. 1978; Peña et al. 2009) (Table 3, Item 5) is primarily due to the development of mature insoluble cross-links in the collagen (Purslow 2014, 2018). Yearling Spanish and Angora goats yielded more tender, juicier and flavourful meat than that of 3–5-month-old kids (Smith et al. 1978). Sheridan et al. (2003) showed increasing drip loss and cooking loss in Boer goats with an increase in slaughter age. However, adult goat meat (2–4 years old) is juicy and flavourful and highly preferred by some consumers (Dhanda et al. 2003). During chewing, the in-mouth lipid processing by saliva acts as a means of lubrication, improving the meat juiciness (Forrest et al. 1975; Schönfeldt et al. 1993). Water retained in cooked meat contributes to meat juiciness. The above factors underpin the need for slaughter age cut-offs to be defined to ensure the quality of goat meat, which is acceptable and desired by consumers, particularly when the focus is for the goat meat to be prepared and consumed as fresh meat cuts rather than as cubes for slow cooking, as is the more common use for goat meat.
A substantial amount of research has demonstrated that muscle/fibre type influences meat quality, especially water-holding capacity and tenderness (instrumentally and sensorially assessed). Although there are few reports on the influence of muscle/fibre type on goat meat tenderness, inferences can be drawn from studies on other ruminants such as cattle and sheep (Totland and Kryvi 1991; Rhee et al. 2004; Sazili et al. 2005; Şirin et al. 2017). Numerous studies have shown the relationship between muscle fibre type and tenderness in beef (Calkins et al. 1981; Geesink et al. 1995; Hwang et al. 2010). With the exception of the studies of Kadim et al. (2010) and Hwang et al. (2019), no other studies were found on goats muscle fibre type in relation to meat quality. Hwang et al. (2019; Table 3, Item 2) reported a positive correlation between the fibre-number percentage and fibre-area percentage of Type IIb fibres and WBSF in goats.
Several studies have studied the effect of muscle fibre type in relation to cooked meat quality in other species (Kim et al. 2013; Vaskoska 2020). Vaskoska (2020) showed a higher WBSF in bovine cutaneous trunci than in masseter and explained it by the fact that myosin from Type II fibres creates firmer gels than did myosin from Type I fibres. Changes in the tenderness and WHC during heating or cooking are driven by protein denaturation (Martens et al. 1982; Hamm 1996; Tornberg 2005). Therefore, investigating the effect of fibre type on tenderness and cooking loss in relation to protein denaturation during cooking is an area of great interest. A significant amount of research has been conducted on protein denaturation during cooking in bovine and porcine muscles regarding tenderness and cooking (Vaskoska et al. 2021). Nevertheless, only a few studies on thermal analysis of goat meat, such as Liu et al. (2013), have been published.
The method of cooking meat and end-point temperature play a critical role in the eating quality of goat meat (Xazela et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2013; Oz et al. 2017). Moist and slow cooking methods, such as roasting, braising or moist cooking in a curry, are usually preferred for cubed goat meat from older goats (MLA 2020). Goat meat can be prepared in various ways, depending on the country and region where it is consumed. A low intramuscular fat content in goat meat is consistant with the present-day consumers’ demands for leaner meat; however, there is a general agreement that lower level of intramuscular fat is responsible for the low juiciness and tenderness of goat meat (Adeyemi et al. 2015). Thus, fast cooking methods such as grilling or pan-frying used for sheep or lamb meat would be inappropriate for goat meat. Goat meat usually requires long and slow cooking at a lower temperature rather than fast cooking methods such as grill, to prevent it becoming dry and tough (Jenkinson 2017). Low temperature–long-time sous-vide cooking is an innovative approach that gives better control of degree of doneness, tenderness, and colour than traditional cooking methods (Ismail et al. 2019). Using this technique, raw food is vacuum-sealed in food grade, heat-stable pouches, and the pouches are cooked under controlled, low temperatures (Baldwin 2012). The sous-vide cooking method allows heat transfer evenly from water bath to meat, providing juicier, and more tender meat for any cut (Baldwin 2012), provided a quick grilling process is used prior to consumption to esure Maillard reaction occurs (essential for good flavour) on the meat surface. Significant reduction of toughness was reported in biceps femoris and gluteus medius muscles of goat meat when they were subjected to stepped sous-vide cooking (45°C for 3 h followed by 60°C for 3 h) compared with single-stage sous-vide treatment (60°C for 6 h) (Ismail et al. 2019).
Goat meat requires careful seasoning with spices such as onions, garlic, black pepper, chilli powder, paprika, and cumin to balance the gamey flavour of the meat (Rhee et al. 2003; Putra et al. 2017). Putra et al. (2019) observed reduced shear force, lipid oxidation, and a decrease in gamey odor/flavour of refrigerated Saanen-crossbred goat in ginger-marinated meat compared with non-marinated meat. Likewise, meat from 7-year-old dairy Saanen goats marinated with either pineapple juice for 60 min or barbecue sauce containing 3% sodium bicarbonate for 60 min, had a lower cooking loss and hardness as well as higher scores for all sensory attributes than did the non-marinated meat (Kaewthong et al. 2021).
The influence of cooking method is usually dependent on the rate at which thermal energy (heat) is applied. Thermal processing of meat greatly influences the cooking yield, protein solubility and other quality attributes, such as tenderness, juiciness, colour and flavour, associated with eating quality and consumer acceptance (Murphy and Marks 2000; Liu et al. 2013; Schwartz et al. 2022). Schwartz et al. (2022) comprehensively reviewed the influence of increasing cooking temperatures on physiochemical and sensory properties of red meat. Liu et al. (2013) showed that increasing end-point cooking temperatures to >60°C led to a significant increase in cooking loss and collagen solubility in semimembranosus muscle of goats. The authors reported a four-phase change in shear force with an increase in end-point temperature from 50°C to 90°C. They also observed a decrease in sarcoplasmic protein solubility between 55°C and 90°C. In a study with goat and lamb meat, roasting in a domestic oven was compared to industrial microwave heating methods (Yarmand and Homayouni 2009). Roasted samples of semimembranosus muscles, which were cooked conventionally in a domestic oven (700 W) to an internal temperature of 70°C, had greater fat retention for both species than did the goat and lamb meat cooked in an industrial oven to 70°C (12 000 W). Although the effects of thermal processing on meat quality have been conducted in many studies including in beef (Bertola et al. 1994; Vasanthi et al. 2007), pork (Bejerholm and Aaslyng 2004) and chicken (Murphy and Marks 2000; Wattanachant et al. 2005), very few studies have been conducted using goat meat.
The other factors contributing to poor goat meat quality are low subcutaneous fat cover, low carcass weight and cooling/freezing being applied prior to rigor onset, all of which are well known to increase the likelhood of cold-shortening and toughening in the carcass musculature. When exposed to typical chilling temperatures of 1–4°C, cold-shortening in rapidly chilled carcasses and toughening is a known problem in the goat meat industry. Pophiwa et al. (2017) proposed delayed chilling (10–15°C for 6 h, 0–4°C until 24 h) as a strategy to minimise cold-shortening in goat carcasses. Research has clearly shown that medium voltage (330 V) electrical stimulation is beneficial for enhancing the postmortem glycolysis, pH decline and tenderness in goat meat (King et al. 2004; Biswas et al. 2007). However, the installation cost restricts small-scale processing plants from adopting the technology.
While there is limited research on ageing and goat meat quality, 6 days of ageing improved tenderness by about 12% in semimembranosus muscle (Simela et al. 2004) and 15–37% in four muscles (longissimus thoracis et lumborum, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus) in three Omani goat breeds (Kadim et al. 2004).
Flavour
Meat flavour is a fundamental sensory characteristic in meat that influences the eating quality and, thus, consumer acceptance (Arshad et al. 2018). In goats and sheep, flavour and aroma are complex attributes that can be affected by breed (Ivanović et al. 2020), age (Smith et al. 1978; Sheridan et al. 2003; Saccà et al. 2019), backfat depth (Schönfeldt et al. 1993), sex (Rodrigues and Teixeira 2009), diet (Oliveira et al. 2015; Ivanović et al. 2020), and cooking methods (Murphy and Marks 2000; Liu et al. 2013). Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) contribute to the typical sheep and goat species flavour (Johnson et al. 1977). The robust species-related flavour in goat and sheep meat is associated with the specific fatty acid 4-ethyloctanoic acid (Madruga et al. 2000). Goat meat has a ‘gamier’, metallic and liver-odour flavour compared with lamb (Mandolesi et al. 2020). In a recent study by Ivanović et al. (2020) in three goat breeds, alpha-linolenic (n-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acids were found predominantly in Balkan goat meat, while Alpine goat meat had the highest amounts of linoleic acid among the three goat breeds. Also, the overall sensory acceptability was higher for Balkan goat meat. Previously, it was reported that long-chain fatty acids (8–10 carbon length) and 4-methyl-BCFAs, specifically 4-Me-8:0 (methyl octanoic acid) and 4-Me-9:0 (methyl nonanoic acid), were responsible for the distinct mutton flavour (Wong et al. 1975a; Young et al. 1997). In another study in goats, Wong et al. (1975b) showed that concentration of 4-Me-8:0 and 4-Me-9:0 was higher in goat and barley-fed mutton than in non-grain-fed mutton. The sensory tests also showed higher scores for ‘goatiness’ in minced samples spiked with 4-Me-8:0 and 4-Me-9:0, than in samples without added 4-Me-8:0 and 4-Me-9:0 (Wong et al. 1975a). Watkins et al. (2014) showed that the ‘overall liking’ and ‘liking of smell’ scores of grilled lamb assessed by the Australian consumers was negatively influenced by the concentration of 4-Me-8:0 and 4-Et-8:0 (ethyl octanoic acid). Watkins et al. (2014) also showed that due to the very low odour sensory threshold of consumers for 4-Me-8:0 and 4-Et-8:0, these compounds have very strong effects on consumer liking of flavour at very low concentrations. Similarly, Castada et. al (2017) reported that the higher concentrations of 4-Me-8:0, 4-Me-9:0 and 4-Et-8:0 corresponded with greater lamb flavour intensity rating by US consumers. The limited data described above emphasise the limitations in understanding the flavour chemistry of goat meat, hence further research is required.
Constraints to improving eating quality consistency of goat meat
One of the critical issues being faced by the goat meat industry is the lack of consistency in meat quality, and the lack of standardised slaughter weight and age. For example, it is unknown whether the meat of heavier goats (>40 kg) is acceptable to consumers (Brand et al. 2018). The temperature at which the loin muscle enters rigor (pH 6.0) can be used to predict the meat quality (Thompson et al. 2005). If the carcass temperature falls too rapidly before rigor mortis sets in, then cold-shortening occurs, which results in meat toughness (Tornberg et al. 1994). Goat carcasses are especially prone to cold-shortening-induced toughness because of their leaner carcass, resulting in a higher surface area to volume ratio. This is particularly relevant for kid carcasses, which are very light-weight carcasses, hence the rate of temperature decline in the muscle is much faster than for adult goats of 2 years (Abhijith et al. 2020). Electrical stimulation is a well established processing technique to improve meat quality (Devine et al. 2001; King et al. 2004; Kadim et al. 2010), but the adoption of this technique among goat-processing plants is minimal. Toohey and Hopkins (2007) suggested that the implementation of electrical stimulation in goat-processing plants could prevent carcasses from entering rigor at low temperatures. Future research should focus on this fundamental concept and evaluate the adoption of electrical stimulation in goat-meat processing plants for better eating quality. Assuring adequate on-farm nutrition is important for the beneficial effect of electrical stimulation to be achieved in goat meat quality, because electrical stimulation can hasten postmortem glycolysis only if glycogen concentration is sufficiently high and above a threshold of 45–55 mmol/g (Devine et al. 2001; Warner et al. 2005). Thus, electrical stimulation may not be able to prevent cold-shortening if the muscle glycogen concentration is below this threshold (Monin 1981; Warriss 1990). Dutson et al. (1981) showed no change in ultimate pH following electrical stimulation, when heifers were stressed antemortem, which resulted in a high ultimate pH of 6.6.
The effect of type of goat (rangeland vs farmed), ageing rate, type of ageing and ageing duration of goat meat on meat quality also warrants research. Wet-ageing, which is an innovative method for improving tenderness and has been recently recommended to increase mutton consumption (Hastie et al. 2022), must be explored to improve the tenderness of goat meat. Although Australian goats are rarely finished in semi-intensive production systems and/or feedlots and are mostly reared in extensive rangeland systems, goat production by intensive feeding may improve quality; hence, the influence of the energy content requirement of the diet should be clearly understood. Recently, Dieters et al. (2021) reported that meat-quality characteristics of lot-fed Australian rangeland goats were unaffected by liveweight at slaughter. In this study, the goats were fed Mitchell grass (Astrebla lappacea) hay and a commercially available finisher pellets ad libitum for 42 days. Feedlotting of boer goats has been researched in some depth by Brand et al. (2018) in South Africa. The palatability and chemical composition of longissimus lumborum muscles from 24 castrate Boer goats weaned from their dams at an average age of ~18 weeks of age, finished on diets varying in energy content (9.7, 10.2 and 10.6 MJ ME/kg feed), and slaughtered at an average live bodyweight of 48 kg, were evaluated. The study reported that the energy content of the finisher diet had no effect on the sensory attributes, or physical or chemical properties of the meat.
Consumers have some unique perceptions about goat meat, which are not easily changed, such as the toughness and poor flavour (Sheridan et al. 2003). However, innovation in the industry and the supply chain can play a key role in increasing domestic acceptance and consumption of goat meat. Potential post-slaughter innovations include how the meat is cooked, muscle-specific cooking methods, and value-adding methods such as ageing. Age and weight of goats for slaughter, considering the eating quality of meat rather than just the dressing percentage and carcass yield, needs to be determined. Recently, consumer taste-testing results showed that the Australian goat meat has a high acceptance among domestic consumers (MLA 2022). The consumers scored goat meat on average over 50 points, which is considered as a ‘good every-day product’. This report also suggested the need for more cut-by-cook research for goat meat, which has the potential to improve the domestic demand for goat meat. Table 4 summarises some of the relevant recommendations to overcome the current barriers for the goat meat industry in Australia.
Conclusions
There are numerous gaps in knowledge regarding market potential and demand for the goat meat sector. Some key factors to be addressed by the goat industry so as to improve meat eating quality and consistency are as follows:
The need for producers to supply processors with consistent lines of goats and producer understanding of market requirements are essential for growing the goat production industry.
Developing standard practices for grading goat meat similar to those for MSA sheep meat is recommended, including identification of suitable interventions in goat feeding, handling and processing practices to achieve consistent goat meat quality.
It is critical to manage and reduce ante-mortem stress, including transportation and handling stress, to ensure minimal glycogen depletion pre-slaughter and thereby achieving an optimum meat ultimate.
Adoption of industrial technology such as electrical stimulation will significantly increase the yield of consistent meat quality.
Changing from extensive to semi-intensive farming/feedlot systems would allow producers to effectively manipulate nutrition and ensure that goats have a sufficient muscle glycogen concentration prior to slaughter.
Cooking methods such as slow and moist cooking should be promoted to enhance the eating experience, especially for non-ethnic consumers unfamiliar with goat meat. In addition, promoting sous-vide cooking provides the opportunity to provide consumers with juicier, more tender and more flavourful meat than the dry and tough meat regularly found with faster cooking methods.
Data availability
Authors confirm that that there no data were generated in this review article. All research findings included in this review have been cited appropriately. The data that support the findings of this review are openly available.
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge and thank The University of Melbourne for providing the Melbourne Graduate Research Scholarship to Archana Abhijith and supporting this work.
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